Читать книгу Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence - Laura E. Levine - Страница 74

The general findings from research on development are modified not only by individual differences, but also by group differences, such as those between different cultures. Culture includes the behaviors, norms, beliefs, and traditions that are shared by a group and that are transmitted from one generation to the next (Matsumoto & Juang, 2017). Culture emerges from a group’s environmental niche (or their place in their particular environment) and promotes the survival of the group by improving the ability of the group to meet the demands of that environment. It also helps group members pursue happiness and find meaning in life.

Culture: The system of behaviors, norms, beliefs, and traditions that form to promote the survival of a group that lives in a particular environmental niche.

Much of the information we have about child development is based on research carried out in Western, developed countries, but increasingly the field has sought to understand children within the context of their own cultures. To this end, we draw on cross-cultural studies throughout the book to illustrate both research that finds similarities across cultures, which suggests there is a universal process at work, and research that illustrates important differences between cultures that impact children as they develop. For example, in Chapter 6 we look at cross-cultural similarities and differences in child-directed speech. In Chapter 7 we look at how adaptive styles of attachment differ from one cultural context to another as well as how emotions are displayed across cultures. We also look at cultural similarities and differences in children’s play (Chapter 8), self-concept (Chapter 13), and self-esteem (Chapter 16), in addition to a number of other topics.

Although the field of child development has shown a deeper, richer appreciation of this diversity in recent years, it is still easy to slip into the assumption that the way we do things is the right way and that other ways are wrong. To guard against labeling culturally based parenting practices as deficient rather than simply different, we must understand cross-cultural experiences in their environmental context to see them as a reflection of a particular set of cultural values. If we do that, we will see that there are a number of different ways to raise children, each of which is responsive to the realities of a particular environment and promotes the well-being of the children in that culture.

For an example of how we may misinterpret the actions and intentions of people whose culture is different from our own, see Active Learning: Cultural Competence and Grief.

Active Learning: Cultural Competence and Grief

Joanne Cacciatore (2009) recounts an experience she had with a family that had just suffered the unexpected death of an 18-month-old son. Although two sets of grandparents and the young child’s parents were present, no one except one of the grandfathers would talk with a representative of the medical examiner’s office. When the grandfather did talk with her, he stayed at least 4 feet away and did not make eye contact. He steadfastly insisted that no autopsy be performed on the child’s body, even though the law required one in cases of sudden child deaths in his state. The family sat in the medical examiner’s office for almost 2 hours in silence, with little or no show of emotion. When they finally were asked whether they wanted to have some time with the dead child to say their good-byes, they adamantly refused.

How would you interpret this family’s behavior? What circumstances could account for it? How does it fit with your cultural beliefs regarding the way a family grieves for the death of a young child? Does their behavior seem typical or atypical to you? Now read about an interpretation of this situation in a particular cultural context in the information printed upside down below.

Does a better understanding of the cultural context in which this episode happened change your interpretation of this family’s reaction to the death of this young child? When we see the behavior of parents only through our own cultural lens, it can lead to a seriously flawed interpretation of both what they are doing and why they are doing it. We always need to be on guard against making this mistake. Throughout this book we point out cultural differences that are functional and adaptive in the setting in which they occur.

Answer: This case involved a Native American family, and their behaviors were completely expected and normal for some families in their culture. In this culture, it was the proper role of the grandfather to be the spokesman for the family. Native Americans may not make sustained eye contact when talking to others and may not display emotion even when they are dealing with personal grief. Because this culture values listening, it is not unusual for its members to remain silent even while sitting together. Autopsies are usually prohibited, as is postmortem contact with the deceased. In the cultural context of this family, their behavior was appropriate, respectful, and in keeping with their traditions and beliefs (Cacciatore, 2009). However, we also need to remember that within any culture there is a range of individual differences. Other Native American families who are more assimilated to Western culture might not adhere to all these cultural traditions.

Cultures are often described as varying along a continuum from individualism to collectivism. In individualistic cultures, heroes often are those who are self-made and who manage to rise from deprived circumstances to become successful. The emphasis is on being independent, competitive, and unique. In collectivist cultures, the emphasis is more on an obligation to your family or your group, however you define it, and identity is derived primarily from the individual’s social affiliations. The child is raised to be aware of how his or her behavior affects others and is encouraged to share resources, with an emphasis on maintaining harmony in social relationships (Thies & Travers, 2006).

Western industrialized societies have been the prototype of individualistic cultures, while Asian cultures have been the prototype of collectivist cultures. However, researchers have begun to question whether this “east-west” dichotomy adequately describes cultural differences. Vignoles and colleagues from around the world (2016) have conducted research that shows that there is not one unitary way to be independent or interdependent. Their research has identified seven different ways in which individuals can be independent or interdependent. They further argue that thinking of cultures as appearing somewhere on a continuum from collectivist to individualistic does not adequately describe the mix of characteristics that describes cultures. For example, Latin American cultures are often identified as collectivist because of a cultural focus on interdependence, but the Latino samples in their study emphasized independence on six of the seven cultural dimensions they identified. Similarly, Middle Eastern samples emphasized self-reliance, toughness, and self-enhancement (which are individualistic characteristics) along with attention to others and the social consequences of one’s behavior (which are collectivistic characteristics). These researchers call for future research that looks at the different ways that individuals within different cultural groups are both independent and interdependent.

Cultural values are expressed in overt behaviors, but also in much more subtle ways. Some cultural expectations are taught explicitly to children. For example, we might say to a child “Look at me when I’m speaking to you,” whereas parents in other cultures might tell a child that not looking directly at an adult is a sign of respect. However, much cultural information is conveyed in more subtle ways through a number of parenting practices, including how parents deal with issues as basic as how to feed infants and toddlers.

Think about what you would expect to see when a mother in the United States feeds her 1-year-old baby. Most likely you have an image of the baby sitting in a high chair. The mother spoon-feeds the baby but often lets the baby take the spoon to begin learning to feed herself (usually with messy and somewhat hilarious results, as shown in the photo on the right on the previous page). She may also put some “finger food,” like dry cereal, on the tray for the baby to take on her own to encourage independence. By contrast, in cultures that emphasize interdependence rather than independence, feeding remains under the control of the parent, as shown in the photo on the left. In the process, the child learns to be patient and cooperate with another person. Mealtime becomes an expression of family love and expectations for proper behavior.

Cultural differences in feeding. Babies in cultures that emphasize independence are often encouraged to try to feed themselves, but babies in cultures that emphasize interdependence are more likely to be fed in a way that encourages connection to family. Do you see how these different cultural values are reflected in these pictures?

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Despite cultural differences in parenting, infants and toddlers around the world all learn to eat, sleep, and go to the bathroom in accordance with the expectations of their cultures. This is an example of equifinality as described earlier in this chapter. There may be multiple pathways, but they all get the child to the same place.