Читать книгу Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes - Laurence Robb - Страница 4

1 f05Figure 1 (a) Classification of the principal rock types and (b) a simple cl...Figure 2 Plot of global production against crustal abundances for a number ...Figure 3 Simplified scheme illustrating the conceptual difference between m...Figure 4 Periodic table showing the elements with atomic numbers from 1 to ...Figure 5 Geological time scale after the International Commission on Strati...Figure 6 Global production trends for oil (a), bauxite (b), copper (c), and...

2 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Oceanic crustal architecture showing the main types of ore deposi...Figure 1.2 Continental crustal architecture showing the main types of igneou...Figure 1.3 Relative abundances of selected metals in basalt, andesite, and r...Figure 1.4 The relationship between Ni and MgO contents of basalts within wh...Figure 1.5 Relative abundances of selected “granitophile” elements in basalt...Figure 1.6 Relative abundances of selected metals in alkaline magmas (and ki...Figure 1.7 Schematic representation of the “late veneer” hypothesis for the ...Figure 1.8 Schematic diagram illustrating features pertinent to the formatio...Figure 1.1.1 Idealized geometry of a diatreme–maar type volcano, showing the nature...Figure 1.1.2 (a) View of the Orapa diamond mine, Botswana. Pyroclastic rocks of a k...Figure 1.9 Schematic diagram illustrating the concept of mantle metasomatism...Figure 1.2.1 Simplified geological map of the Barreiro Complex.Figure 1.2.2 Back‐scattered electron microscope image of pyrochlore being re...Figure 1.2.3 Simplified geological map of the Bayan Obo district.Figure 1.2.4 ɛNd versus ɛSr plot showing the field of Phalaborwa data relati...Figure 1.10 (a) Simplified map showing the distribution of S‐ and I‐type gra...Figure 1.11 Generalized scheme that links granite compositions and magmatic ...Figure 1.12 The sequential melting behavior of peridotite in the mantle at 2...Figure 1.13 The pattern of grain boundary melting of an arkosic protolith s...Figure 1.14 The enrichment/depletion of a trace element in a partial melt r...Figure 1.3.1 Sheets of leucogranite cutting through high‐grade metasediments...Figure 1.3.2 Simplified batch melt model showing the degree of enrichment e...Figure 1.15 Schematic illustration showing the nature of layering in the Sk...Figure 1.16 (a) Density variations in a fractionating magma similar in start...Figure 1.17 Trace element distribution during fractional crystallization. (a...Figure 1.4.1 Simplified cross section through the Zaaiplaats tin mine in the...Figure 1.4.2 Rayleigh fractionation model showing the degree of enrichment e...Figure 1.18 A portion of the ternary system quartz–olivine–chromite (a) show...Figure 1.5.1 Simplified geological map and section through the Bushveld Comp...Figure 1.5.2 Multiple chromitite seams exposed at Dwars River in the eastern...Figure 1.19 The nature of the “immiscibility gap” (shaded) that exists in fe...Figure 1.20 Phase equilibria established experimentally in the system SiO₂–F...Figure 1.21 Variation in sulfide solubility as a function of progressive cry...Figure 1.22 (a) Plot showing the relationships between partition coefficient...Figure 1.23 (a) Calculated models showing predicted sulfur content as a func...Figure 1.6.1 The characteristics of komatiite‐hosted Ni–Cu deposits in the K...Figure 1.7.1 Sr isotope variations (in terms of the initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio ...Figure 1.7.2 Twenty meter deep pothole exposed in a quarry on the farm Maand...Figure 1.7.3 Schematic cross sections illustrating the progressive developm...Figure 1.8.1 Simplified geological map of the Sudbury Complex showing the r...Figure 1.8.2 (a) Shatter cone in country rock surrounding the Sudbury Igneou...Figure 1.8.3 (a) Plot of Sr versus MgO showing the compositional fields of t...Figure 1.24 The ternary system FeO–SiO₂–FeS at 1200 °C showing how the addit...Figure 1.25 Schematic diagram illustrating the formation of PGE clusters in ...Figure 1.26 Generalized model showing the nature of igneous processes that g...

3 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Idealized illustration of the water molecule and the nature of hy...Figure 2.2 (a) Pressure–temperature phase diagram (not to scale) for pure H₂ Figure 2.3 Pressure–temperature plot showing the approximate conditions unde...Figure 2.4 (a) Experimentally determined solubilities (in wt%) of H₂O in sil...Figure 2.5 Schematic section through a high‐level granodioritic intrusion un...Figure 2.6 Plots of temperature versus H₂O content showing the crystallizati...Figure 2.7 Schematic section through a high‐level granodioritic intrusion (a...Figure 2.8 The variation of quartz solubility in aqueous solution as a funct...Figure 2.9 Normalized compositions of aqueous fluid in equilibrium with a gr...Figure 2.10 (a) Plot of the system H₂O–NaCl–KCl showing the compositional ra...Figure 2.11 (a) Boiling point (liquid–vapor) curves for pure water and for t...Figure 2.12 Plot of H₂O content versus temperature for rehomogenized (at 1 k...Figure 2.13 (a) The ratio of the concentration of Zn in H₂O‐fluid [Zn]^f to t...Figure 2.14 Variations in the concentration of Cl⁻ in a silicate melt ...Figure 2.15 Calculated concentrations of chlorine in (a) an aqueous fluid ex...Figure 2.16 Bar graph showing the abundances of metals in selected, coexisti...Figure 2.17 (a) The relationship between H₂O fluid/silicate melt partition c...Figure 2.18 Strong's model showing the relationship between level of granite...Figure 2.1.1 Simplified map showing the position, in northern Chile, of the ...Figure 2.1.2 North–south sections through La Escondida showing the lithologi...Figure 2.1.3 View of the Escondida open pit with the inset diagram showing t...Figure 2.19 Schematic model for the origin and formation of porphyry‐type Cu...Figure 2.20 The geological setting and characteristics of high‐sulfidation a...Figure 2.2.1 (a) Cross section through the Kasuga deposit showing the nature...Figure 2.2.2 Gold and silver (electrum) rich Hosen vein as seen underground ...Figure 2.21 Two stage model for the formation of high‐sulfidation epithermal...Figure 2.22 Plot of [FeO + Fe₂O₃ + CaO + Na₂O]/K₂O versus SiO₂ showing the r...Figure 2.3.1 Generalized geology of the MacTung deposit and a cross section ...Figure 2.3.2 View of the north face of Mount Allan showing the exposed tungs...Figure 2.23 The evolution of intrusion‐related skarn deposits showing the th...Figure 2.24 Models illustrating the thermal and fluid flow characteristics i...Figure 2.4.1 Distribution of the major exposed plutons in Cornwall and Devon...Figure 2.4.2 Sheeted Sn–W‐bearing, greisen‐bordered veins (dark coloration) ...Figure 2.4.3 (a) The regional pattern of metal zonation around the southeast...Figure 2.25 Schematic illustration showing the nature of “potholes” in the M...

4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 (a) The major types of liquid water that exist at or near the Ear...Figure 3.2 Simplified diagram illustrating the water budget on or close to t...Figure 3.3 The formation and characteristics of basinal waters. (a) Depth pr...Figure 3.4 (a) The relationship between basinal fluid production during diag...Figure 3.5 (a) Part of the phase diagram for CO₂ showing the variations in f...Figure 3.6 Various tectonic scenarios illustrating the mechanisms by which m...Figure 3.7 Plot of depth versus fluid pressure to illustrate the difference ...Figure 3.8 Model explaining the episodic flow of fluid along a seismically a...Figure 3.9 Models explaining the nature of hydrothermal fluid flow in (a) hi...Figure 3.10 The ability of a fluid to flow through a rock at a small scale d...Figure 3.11 Schematic diagram showing a convecting pore fluid circulating in...Figure 3.12 Plot of the effective stability of a metal complex (expressed in...Figure 3.13 Log fO₂–pH diagram showing the stability of iron oxide and sulfi...Figure 3.14 Base and precious metal concentrations in ore‐forming hydrotherm...Figure 3.15 Predicted solubilities of (a) Ag in vapor and (b) Au in vapor fo...Figure 3.1.1 Simplified, subsurface geological map of the Olympic Dam ore de...Figure 3.1.2 Geological model for the formation of the Olympic Dam deposit. ...Figure 3.16 Plots of percentage adsorption versus pH for (a) copper as CuCl⁺...Figure 3.17 Diagram showing the steps involved in adsorbing metal ions onto ...Figure 3.18 Microphotographs of (a) bacterial cell with amorphous ferric hyd...Figure 3.19 Models illustrating the dynamic nature of fluid/rock interaction...Figure 3.2.1 (a) General geological outline of the Golden Mile, east of Kalg...Figure 3.20 Plot of Gibbs free energy versus temperature for a variety of su...Figure 3.21 Conceptual diagram illustrating the fluid characteristics and ci...Figure 3.22 (a) Section through a typical ophiolite‐hosted, Cyprus‐type VMS ...Figure 3.3.1 Generalized geology of the Troodos ophiolite complex in Cyprus ...Figure 3.3.2 Photos of pillow lavas (a) and sheeted dykes (b) exposed in the...Figure 3.3.3 The nature and geometry of VMS mineralization in typical Cyprus...Figure 3.23 (a) Secular model explaining the evolution of fluids, growth of ...Figure 3.24 (a) Plot of temperature versus density for a variety of possible...Figure 3.25 The Salton Sea Geothermal System (SSGS) and its location (inset)...Figure 3.26 Diagram illustrating the setting for the formation of SEDEX‐type...Figure 3.4.1 Interpretive, pre‐thrusting, cross section through Devonian–Car...Figure 3.4.2 Simplified block diagram showing the environment of ore formati...Figure 3.27 Schematic illustrations showing the principal features of Archea...Figure 3.28 (a) Map showing the distribution of Carlin‐type gold deposits in...Figure 3.5.1 Cross section looking north of the Mega Pit at the Twin Creeks ...Figure 3.29 (a) Simplified north–south section showing the pattern of altera...Figure 3.30 Diagrammatic representation showing the relationship between a s...Figure 3.31 Eh–pH plot for the system Cu–O–H–S–Cl at 25 °C (with ΣS = 10⁻⁴...Figure 3.32 (a) Section showing metal zonation in typical Kupferschiefer ore...Figure 3.33 Plot of Cu⁺/H⁺ versus Fe⁺/H⁺ activity ratios to ...Figure 3.6.1 Simplified stratigraphic profile through the rocks of the Centr...Figure 3.6.2 Folded metasediments hosting stratiform Cu–Co mineralization at...Figure 3.34 Diagram illustrating the concept of hydrological continuity betw...Figure 3.35 fO₂–pH plot showing key mineral and aqueous species stabilities ...Figure 3.7.1 Geological setting of the Viburnum Trend Pb–Zn mineralization a...Figure 3.7.2 West–east section through the Fletcher Mine, Viburnum Trend, sh...Figure 3.36 Eh–pH diagram showing relevant aqueous uranium species for the c...Figure 3.37 (a) The orebody geometry and nature of host rocks for the tabula...Figure 3.38 (a) Cross section through a typical roll‐front type sandstone‐ho...Figure 3.39 Diagram illustrating the relationship between different fluid ty...

5 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Simplified scheme on the basis of ionic potential (ionic charge/i...Figure 4.2 (a) The solubility of Si and Al as a function of pH.(b) The s...Figure 4.3 (a) A generalized lateritic regolith profile showing the differen...Figure 4.4 Eh–pH diagram showing conditions relevant to the formation of lat...Figure 4.1.1 Schematic profile through the Los Pijiguaos bauxite deposit sho...Figure 4.1.2 Photograph of typical bauxitic ore at Los Pijiguaos (white rod ...Figure 4.1.3 Ternary Al₂O₃–SiO₂–Fe₂O₃ plot showing the residual increase in ...Figure 4.5 Descriptive profile and Ni distribution in a lateritic regolith t...Figure 4.6 A model for the evolution of Ni laterite deposits. (a) Developmen...Figure 4.7 The nature and characteristics of gold and silver redistribution ...Figure 4.8 Eh–pH diagram showing the characteristics of a lateritic profile ...Figure 4.9 The effect of rainfall on clay mineral formation in (a) felsic an...Figure 4.10 Representation of the stages during the progressive weathering ...Figure 4.11 Strongly kaolinitized granite at Treviscoe in Cornwall, being hy...Figure 4.12 Experimental data for smectite clay that illustrates (a) the rel...Figure 4.13 Experimental data for Eu adsorption onto kaolinite showing that ...Figure 4.14 Simplified classification scheme for calcretes and a summary of ...Figure 4.15 (a) Geological setting of the Yeelirrie carnotite deposit hosted...Figure 4.16 Schematic section through a copper deposit showing the typical p...Figure 4.17 (a) Illustration of the stable mineral assemblages modeled as a ...Figure 4.18 Eh–pH diagram showing the stability fields of selected copper mi...Figure 4.2.1 (a) Cross section through the Chuquicamata mine showing the dis...Figure 4.2.2 Supergene profile exposed in the south wall of the Chino (Santa...

6 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Results of a flume experiment simulating (a) fluid flow at the co...Figure 5.2 (a) Schematic illustration, using streamlines, of the nature of l...Figure 5.3 Illustration of the different mechanisms of sediment transport in...Figure 5.4 A Hjulström diagram showing how sedimentary processes can be asse...Figure 5.5 Illustration showing the principle of hydraulic equivalence for p...Figure 5.6 (a) Shields diagram showing the threshold conditions between entr...Figure 5.7 Quartz grain size and magnetite concentrations in a shear sorted ...Figure 5.8 (a) Computer simulation showing the effects of transport sorting ...Figure 5.9 Heavy mineral sorting processes at various scales and in differen...Figure 5.1.1 Map showing the Orange River drainage system in relation to the...Figure 5.1.2 Map showing the distribution of gravel terraces in the vicinity...Figure 5.1.3 Diamondiferous gravels related to the paleo‐Orange River draina...Figure 5.10 (a) Factors controlling the nature of wave dominated beaches and...Figure 5.11 (a) Plot showing the changes in heavy mineral contents along a p...Figure 5.12 Wind blown (eolian) sediment transport characteristics as a func...Figure 5.13 (a) Geometry and flow characteristics of a braided fan delta com...Figure 5.14 The development of limonitic concentrations in the formation of ...Figure 5.15 Simplified environmental model for the formation of oolitic iron...Figure 5.16 Tectonic and environmental model showing the depositional settin...Figure 5.17 (a) Eh–pH diagram showing the stabilities of common iron mineral...Figure 5.18 Episodic occurrences of VMS and iron deposits (BIF and GIF in da...Figure 5.19 Models illustrating different scenarios in which the upwelling a...Figure 5.2.1 Simplified geology and location of some of the major iron ore d...Figure 5.2.2 Simplified cross section through the Mount Whaleback iron ore d...Figure 5.20 (a) Depth-concentration profiles for Fe and Mn in the Black Sea....Figure 5.21 Map showing sub‐equatorial zones of base metal enriched manganes...Figure 5.22 Estimates of apatite solubility in sea water (expressed in terms...Figure 5.23 (a) Generalized correlations between the development of phosphat...Figure 5.24 (a) Map showing the distribution of phosphate‐rich sediments alo...Figure 5.25 (a) Plots of sulfur, molybdenum, and uranium versus carbon conte...Figure 5.26 (a) Schematic cross section showing the important features neces...Figure 5.3.1 Stratigraphic profile through the Boulby Mine and an enlarged s...Figure 5.3.2 Aerial view of the evaporation ponds on the Salar de Atacama, C...Figure 5.3.3 Distribution of the Li content of subsurface brines in the Sala...Figure 5.3.4 Schematic diagram showing the important features that character...Figure 5.27 Simplified scheme illustrating the formation of oil, gas, and co...Figure 5.28 Summary of the stages and processes involved in the transformati...Figure 5.29 Graph showing the relationships between temperature and time wit...Figure 5.30 Classification scheme for kerogen types based on the hydrogen in...Figure 5.31 Maturity curves showing (a) the cumulative generation of oil typ...Figure 5.32 Explanation of oil‐phase primary migration. (a) “Water saturated...Figure 5.33 (a) Actual measurements of excess hydrostatic pressures (i.e. ov...Figure 5.34 Schematic geological scenarios for hydrocarbon trap sites. (a) S...Figure 5.35 Examples of structural traps for petroleum. (a) Cross section th...Figure 5.36 (a) Location of the East Texas oil field in the context of the p...Figure 5.4.1 Location and distribution of some of the major oil and gas fiel...Figure 5.4.2 Interpretations of the evolving sedimentary environment in the ...Figure 5.37 Bituminous coal seam from the Witbank area, South Africa, hosted...Figure 5.38 Generalized scheme illustrating the nature of peat stratigraphy ...Figure 5.39 Ternary C–H–O plot showing the compositional trend accompanying ...Figure 5.40 Environmental model for peat accumulation, showing the evolution...Figure 5.41 Map showing the outcrop of the Eagle Ford Formation and its prog...Figure 5.42 (a) Phase diagram illustrating the regions of methane hydrate st...

7 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Distribution of ore deposit styles, classified according to orog...Figure 6.2 Temporal distribution of ore deposit types as function of the as...Figure 6.3 (a) Histogram showing peaks of detrital zircon ages over time and...Figure 6.4 Schematic diagram showing the timing of amalgamation and dispersa...Figure 6.5 Reconstructions of the mainly Paleoproterozoic supercontinent Nun...Figure 6.6 (a) Reconstruction of Rodinia at 750 Ma, prior to the onset of br...Figure 6.7 (a) Continental paleogeography in the late Devonian Period, at 37...Figure 6.8 Estimated rise of atmospheric oxygen over the past 3.8 Gyr on the...Figure 6.9 Schematic diagram showing the decline in global heat production ...Figure 6.10 Model for the secular evolution of the lithosphere as a functio...Figure 6.11 Pattern of supercontinent cycles, reflecting Pangean assembly a...Figure 6.12 (a) Early stage of Archean crustal evolution, termed intra‐ocean...Figure 6.13 The paleogeographic patterns of Gondwanan and Pangean dispersal...Figure 6.14 Occurrences (in terms of relative abundances) of a variety of d...Figure 6.15 Simplified illustrations of the major extensional tectonic sett...Figure 6.16 Simplified illustrations of the major compressional tectonic se...