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Here is a tentative answer to the philosophical question (with the qualifications we made at the end of the previous section): ‘rationality’ consists in reasoning in accordance with the rules of logic, probability, and decision-making.

Now, let us turn to the psychological questions. The crucial question is: ‘Do human agents actually reason in accordance with the rules of logic, probability, and decision-making?’ We will now review relevant studies, mainly from the heuristics and biases programme, which offer ample evidence that human reasoning systematically deviates from the rules of logic, probability, and decision-making. They include some of the most famous results in 20th-century psychological research.