Читать книгу The Invention of the 'Underclass' - Loic Wacquant - Страница 16

1 1. “In the gallery of types that society erects to show its members which roles should be avoided and which should be emulated, these groups have occupied a constant position as folk devils: visible reminders of what we should not be.” Stanley Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers (1972, 3rd ed. 1987), p. 10.

2 2. “Even if any given terminology is a reflection of reality, by its very nature it must be a selection of reality; and to this extent it must function as a deflection of reality.” Kenneth Burke, “Terministic Screens,” in Language as Symbolic Action (1966), p. 45.

3 3. Robert K. Merton, “Socio-Economic Duration: A Case Study of Concept Formation in Sociology” (1984), p. 267.

4 4. Loïc Wacquant, Urban Outcasts: A Comparative Sociology of Advanced Marginality (2008), chs. 2–4.

5 5. Reinhart Koselleck, The Practice of Conceptual History: Timing History, Spacing Concepts (2002), and Pierre Bourdieu, Science de la science et réflexivité (2001).

6 6. Loïc Wacquant, “Marginality, Ethnicity and Penality in the Neoliberal City: An Analytic Cartography” (2014), which stresses the role of the state as a producer of racialized dispossession in the city, as distinct from its mission of control and succor of the same.

7 7. By precariat, I mean the precarious fraction of the black proletariat, in the technical sense of sellers of labor power. Members of this class fraction have minimal or no “market capacity” (in the language of Max Weber) in regard of the dualized division and flexibilization of labor. They are locked out of wage work or locked in unstable and underpaid jobs that are vectors of social insecurity (extending to the gamut of life spheres: family, housing, health, education, etc.). I trace the genealogy and elaborate the concept of precariat in the second part of the book, infra, pp. 162–8.

8 8. Loïc Wacquant, “Scrutinizing the Street: Poverty, Morality, and the Pitfalls of Urban Ethnography” (2002). Christopher Bryant calls this brand of research “instrumental positivism,” in contradistinction with the French lineage of positivism initiated by Auguste Comte and with the logical empiricism of the Vienna Circle (Carnap, Hempel, Gödel). I prefer the idiom of empiricism for its opposition to the rationalism of historical epistemology. Christopher G.A. Bryant, Positivism in Social Theory and Research (1985).

9 9. The exemplary study here is Georges Canguilhem, La Formation du concept de réflexe aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (1955).

10 10. Pierre Bourdieu, “Le mort saisit le vif” (1980b).

11 11. Max Weber, “Objectivity in Social Science and Social Policy” (1947 [1904]), p. 105. At key junctures in my excavation, I call on the ghosts of past observers of urban marginality (and contemporary scholars caught red-handed in the act of myth-making) in the form of boxed quotes to illustrate the ironic permanence of the representations and concerns of “poverticians” over a century and more.

12 12. Weber, “Objectivity in Social Science and Social Policy,” pp. 105 and 106.

13 13. William Julius Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and American Institutions (1978, exp. 1980 ed.). I dissect Wilson’s use of the “underclass” in chapter 3.

14 14. Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England (1993 [1845]); Louis Chevalier, Classes laborieuses et classes dangereuses à Paris pendant la première moitié du XIXe siècle (1958); Gareth Stedman Jones, Outcast London: A Study in the Relationship between Classes in Victorian Society (1971). A fascinating long-term history of the making of the urban “underworld” in the collective imaginary of Western society is Dominique Kalifa, Les Bas-fonds. Histoire d’un imaginaire (2013).

15 15. Georg Rusche and Otto Kirchheimer, Punishment and Social Structure (2003 [1939]); Catharina Lis and Hugo Soly, Poverty and Capitalism in Pre-industrial Europe (1979); Bronislaw Geremek, La Potence ou la pitié. L’Europe et les pauvres du Moyen Âge à nos jours (1978).

16 16. Allan H. Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890–1920 (1967); James R. Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (1989); St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (1993 [1945]); Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940–1960 (1983, new exp. ed. 1998); and William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (1987, new exp. ed. 2012). There existed no monograph on race, class, and space in Chicago in the 1960s, the decade which I will argue proved pivotal to the tale of the “underclass.”

17 17. Alice O’Connor, Poverty Knowledge: Social Science, Social Policy, and the Poor in Twentieth-Century US History (2001), ch. 9. This book is a must-read for any serious student of poverty in America, whatever their discipline.

18 18. W.E.B. Du Bois, On Sociology and the Black Community (1978), p. 37. This expression refers to caricatural knowledge of African American society and culture produced by white scholars in the Jim-Crow south, based on distant and circumstantial observation (such as can be carried out while riding a Pullman car on a vacation trip).

19 19. Loïc Wacquant, “A Janus-Faced Institution of Ethnoracial Closure: A Sociological Specification of the Ghetto” (2012a).

20 20. A fuller account of my biographical and intellectual pathway into and inside the South Side is Loïc Wacquant, “The Body, the Ghetto and the Penal State” (2009a).

21 21. Loïc Wacquant, Body and Soul: Notebooks of an Apprentice Boxer (2004 [2000], exp. anniversary ed. 2022).

22 22. William Julius Wilson, When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor (1996).

23 23. Morton Gabriel White and Lucia White, The Intellectual Versus the City: From Thomas Jefferson to Frank Lloyd Wright (1962); Andrew Lees, Cities Perceived: Urban Society in European and American Thought, 1820–1840 (1985); Steven Conn, Americans Against the City: Anti-Urbanism in the Twentieth Century (2013), ch. 1.

24 24. Robert A. Beauregard, Voices of Decline: The Postwar Fate of US Cities (1993).

25 25. White and White, The Intellectual Versus the City.

26 26. Paul S. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920 (1978), p. 57.

27 27. David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840–1925: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (1989), pp. 53–61.

28 28. Christian Topalov, “The City as Terra Incognita: Charles Booth’s Poverty Survey and the People of London, 1886–1891” (1993 [1991]).

29 29. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920, p. 126.

30 30. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920, p. 153. The practice is a precursor to the public systematization and private diffusion of criminal records in the late twentieth century as dissected by James B. Jacobs, The Eternal Criminal Record (2015).

31 31. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920, p. 176.

32 32. Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia (1988). This is in sharp contrast to the bourgeoisie of continental Europe, which viewed the city as the fount of civilization and civility and aspired to reside at its historic center.

33 33. Robert M. Fogelson, Bourgeois Nightmares: Suburbia, 1870–1930 (2007), part 2.

34 34. Reinhart Koselleck, “The Historical-Political Semantics of Asymmetric Counterconcepts.” (2004).

35 35. Michael B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (1996), p. 166.

36 36. Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order in America, 1820–1920, pp. 200, 222–32.

37 37. Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Neighborhood Deterioration and Middle-Class Reform (1978), p. x.

38 38. Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto, pp. 346–7; Spear, Black Chicago, pp. 169–79; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, ch. 8.

39 39. William M. Tuttle, Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919 (1970); Lee E. Williams, Anatomy of Four Race Riots: Racial Conflict in Knoxville, Elaine (Arkansas), Tulsa, and Chicago, 1919–1921 (2008). See also Chicago Commission on Race Relations, The Negro in Chicago: A Study of Race Relations and a Race Riot (1923), one of the most remarkable accounts of the nexus of race, class, and space ever written (largely by sociologist Charles S. Johnson).

40 40. Conn, Americans Against the City, ch. 3.

41 41. Conn, Americans Against the City, pp. 94–5.

42 42. Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design Since 1880, 4th ed. (2014), ch. 4.

43 43. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (1987), chs. 11 and 12; Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940–1985 (1990).

44 44. Beauregard, Voices of Decline, p. 137.

45 45. Peter B. Levy, The Great Uprising: Race Riots in Urban America during the 1960s (2018).

46 46. Cited in Thomas Byrne Edsall and Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (1991), p. 52.

47 47. Thomas J. Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (2008), pp. 334–51; William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965–1975 (1992).

48 48. Wacquant, “A Janus-Faced Institution of Ethnoracial Closure,” pp. 10–12.

49 49. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (1968); Robert M. Fogelson, “White on Black: A Critique of the McCone Commission Report on the Los Angeles Riot.” (1967), pp. 363–4. Read the condemnation of the “separatist charade” as “a carbon copy of white supremacy” and a “Lorelei of black racism” by Kenneth B. Clark, “The Black Plight, Race or Class?” (1980).

50 50. Beauregard, Voices of Decline, pp. 185–216. A flood of scholarly and journalistic books with the words “urban crisis” in their title gushed out in the 1960s and 1970s.

51 51. Lillian B. Rubin, Quiet Rage: Bernie Goetz in a Time of Madness (1986); Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse, ch. 11; Michael Tonry, Malign Neglect: Race, Crime and Punishment in America (1995); Loïc Wacquant, Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity (2009b), chs. 2–3 and 7.

52 52. Robert Gooding-Williams (ed.)., Reading Rodney King, Reading Urban Uprising (2013).

53 53. For an analysis of how rappers both play on and amplify the imagery of anti-urbanism as anti-blackness, see Tricia Rose, Black Noise: Rap Music and Black Culture in Contemporary America (1994), ch. 4.