Читать книгу Fundamentals of Conservation Biology - Malcolm L. Hunter Jr. - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 The roots of conservation can probably be found among the earlies...Figure 1.2 Mount Fuji [top] has been a sacred mountain for the Buddhists and...Figure 1.3 Put yourself in the shoes of John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and Aldo...Figure 1.4 A schematic view of the relationship between conservation biology...Figure 1.5 The Society for Conservation Biology began publishing Conservatio...Figure 1.6 This Española tortoise was among the very first repatriated to th...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 There are few places where biodiversity is as conspicuous as a co...Figure 2.2 Conservationists do not consider all species to merit equal atten...Figure 2.3 The distribution of four hypothetical lizard species showing alph...Figure 2.4 Clear Lake in northern California used to be inhabited by 14 nati...Figure 2.5 What is the state of this Pacific kelp forest? From a biodiversit...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Over 1.8 million species have been described by scientists, and i...Figure 3.2 The depth of unexplored biodiversity is greatest among small spec...Figure 3.3 These caterpillars represent ten sibling species of what was long...Figure 3.4 A species' intrinsic value is independent of its relationship wit...Figure 3.5 Although most of our food comes from domestic species, a wide var...Figure 3.6 Silphion was a plant of such great commercial value that it was d...Figure 3.7 Natural building materials remain very important, especially in r...Figure 3.8 People enjoy the diversity of nature in many ways. Some seek part...Figure 3.9 Other organisms teach us about our world. Here biologists attach ...Figure 3.10 (Left) This person climbed up and down almost 10 m of glass, at ...Figure 3.11 The ecological impacts of keystone species take many forms. The ...Figure 3.12 With a geographic range reaching from the Russian Far East south...Figure 3.13 Which is more important to conserve, the aardvark or the jerboa?...Figure 3.14 The neem tree provides an extraordinary array of useful products...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Deciding where one ecosystem begins and another ends is a complex...Figure 4.2 This map depicts the Earth’s terrestrial ecoregions; see text abo...Figure 4.3 Are ecosystems tightly connected systems of closely coevolved spe...Figure 4.4 Some types of ecosystems are rare because most examples have been...Figure 4.5 Relatively few species can tolerate the special conditions of sal...Figure 4.6 Many people visit natural ecosystems to feel a sense of spiritual...Figure 4.7 The narrow riparian zones that border river shores are far more i...Figure 4.8 The strategic value of ecosystems is illustrated by the coarse‐fi...Figure 4.9 The forests of Socotra, a small remote island, could be said to c...Figure 4.10 The extreme climatic conditions of a high‐latitude or high‐eleva...Figure 4.11 Ecologists refer to a mosaic of interacting ecosystems as a land...Figure 4.12 Mangroves are marine wetlands that occur along many tropical coa...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 The evolution of the “tree of life”. Branching relationships chan...Figure 5.2 Most people who have eaten cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, kale, ...Figure 5.3 Two morphs of the eastern gray squirrel well known from the easte...Figure 5.4 Genetic diversity is partitioned within versus among populations ...Figure 5.5 The native annual plant, Collinsia sparsiflora, grows on [“S”] an...Figure 5.6 (a) Species of snowball plants of the genus Saussurea that are us...Figure 5.7 Relationships between reproductive fitness and genetic diversity ...Figure 5.8 Juvenile mortality in 44 species of mammals (16 ungulates, 16 pri...Figure 5.9 Deformities resulting from population isolation and inbreeding, i...Figure 5.10 Outbreeding depression among ibex. When an ibex population of th...Figure 5.11 Ankole watusi cattle raised as beef on a dry pasture in Malawi v...Figure 5.12 Inbreeding pedigrees for matings between: (a) a half‐sister with...Figure 5.13 Wild animals and humans have long shared culture based on collab...Figure 5.14 An “alien” giant tortoise (a) recently discovered on a remote vo...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 The rise and occasional fall of biodiversity as indicated by the ...Figure 6.2 The Earth is pocked with many impact craters such as this one in ...Figure 6.3 Trilobites survived for roughly 270 million years before disappea...Figure 6.4 Three long‐term cyclical changes in the Earth’s movements collect...Figure 6.5 Global mean temperature record of the last 150,000 years.Figure 6.6 Changes in the geographic ranges of American beech and eastern he...Figure 6.7 Biota particularly sensitive to global climate change include som...Figure 6.8 Protected areas are projected to be particularly vulnerable to cl...Figure 6.9 Average decadal changes in timing of important biological events ...Figure 6.10 The timing of important biological events has been shifting arou...Figure 6.11 Species undergoing “phenology mismatch” due to climate change: c...Figure 6.12 The mountains of Haiti where forests have nearly vanished due to...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 (a) An empirical evaluation of extinction risk for eight rare flo...Figure 7.2 There are three basic ways that a species can be rare. Some, such...Figure 7.3 The ability of species to survive in the face of environmental ch...Figure 7.4 If we use an area‐based definition of population, the trout in th...Figure 7.5 A schematic depiction of metapopulations. Occupied patches are sh...Figure 7.6 Metapopulation structure and dynamics of the solitary bee Andrena...Figure 7.7 Deterministic projections.Figure 7.8 Ten projections with survival‐related stochasticity.Figure 7.9 Projections with survival‐related stochasticity.Figure 7.10 Projections with survival‐ and gender‐related stochasticity.Figure 7.11 Projections with survival‐ and gender‐related stochasticities an...Figure 7.12 A combination of factors drove the heath hen, once widespread in...Figure 7.13 Extinctions happen despite our best efforts to prevent them. Geo...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 This map shows the human footprint, a quantitative depiction of h...Figure 8.2 The effects of air pollution on the health of urban people are we...Figure 8.3 Analysis of the spatial patterns of dominant winds (arrows) and a...Figure 8.4 This figure shows the recovery of Atlantic salmon, a flagship and...Figure 8.5 Persistent pesticides and similar compounds accumulate in the tis...Figure 8.6 Most of the Earth’s land surface is densely crisscrossed by roads...Figure 8.7 Roads act as filters to the movements of many animals, especially...Figure 8.8 Many of the world’s rivers are fragmented by dams that stop or re...Figure 8.9 Ingesting plastic debris is a major issue for many marine organis...Figure 8.10 Soil erosion has profoundly degraded ecosystem productivity in m...Figure 8.11 Clearcuts have a dramatic effect on forest biota but the key iss...Figure 8.12 Oil palm plantations are replacing tropical forests in many regi...Figure 8.13 This photo from Morocco highlights one of the main drivers of de...Figure 8.14 A complex of aquatic ecosystems before and after human alteratio...Figure 8.15 A graphical representation of island biogeography theory.Figure 8.16 The number of species in a sample plot or on an island increases...Figure 8.17 People usually initiate fragmentation by building a road into a ...Figure 8.18 Three principles of geometry that affect the edge‐to‐area ratios...Figure 8.19 Penetration distances of different edge effects into forest remn...Figure 8.20 Madagascar is home to many unique species such as the diademed s...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Many scientists believe that human overexploitation was responsib...Figure 9.2 Moas were flightless birds endemic to New Zealand that were drive...Figure 9.3 Commercial exploitation for urban markets has devastated populati...Figure 9.4 (a) Bats marketed for food like these are thought to be the sourc...Figure 9.5 Subsistence use of wild plants and animals is very important for ...Figure 9.6 Trophy hunting is the hunting of animals, usually large carnivore...Figure 9.7 Even nonconsumptive use of wild life can be harmful. This diver e...Figure 9.8 Sea lions are often victims (bycatch) to entanglement in active o...Figure 9.9 This graph shows how whalers have overexploited a series of great...Figure 9.10 Mortality resulting from human fishing tends to increase as fish...Figure 9.11 Overfishing of herbivorous parrotfish, such as the stoplight par...Figure 9.12 Change in species abundance for different levels of protection, ...Figure 9.13 Consumers provide the market for wild life trade items and thus ...Figure 9.14 The decline of large, predatory fish in the Gulf of Maine (e.g. ...Figure 9.15 Temporal trends in fractional trophic levels of harvested specie...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Ships have spread Norway rats and black rats to virtually every ...Figure 10.2 International trade leads to invasion of exotic species as refle...Figure 10.3 Historically, fish stocking for sport was one of the main driver...Figure 10.4 In Australia eastern barred bandicoots (shown here), other small...Figure 10.5 After sea lampreys used the Welland canal to bypass Niagara Fall...Figure 10.6 “ The four known species of bush wren in New Zealand are, b...Figure 10.7 The introduction of Nile perch to Lake Victoria led to the extir...Figure 10.8 (a) White‐nose syndrome (WNS) has had a devastating effect on se...Figure 10.9 The giant weta, a huge flightless insect weighing up to 70 g, is...Figure 10.10 (a) Volunteer divers participate in lionfish derbies in an effo...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 These maps depict global patterns of bird species distribution. ...Figure 11.2 The idea of focusing conservation in areas with high species ric...Figure 11.3 Conservation biologists have used Geographic Information Systems...Figure 11.4 In Nepal there are few protected areas at middle elevations beca...Figure 11.5 Schematic representations of design principles for nature reserv...Figure 11.6 The reserve depicted in the center of this drawing illustrates m...Figure 11.7 Final zoning plan for the Asinara Island Marine Reserve in Italy...Figure 11.8 The top map depicts core areas of tiger habitat in the terai reg...Figure 11.9 Recently described vertebrate species from the Annamite Range in...Figure 11.10 As of 2018, Vietnam’s national protected area network covered a...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Conservationists cannot afford to adopt a siege mentality, prote...Figure 12.2 The assemblage of species associated with a forest changes as th...Figure 12.3 In this University of Maine forest stand, partial cutting has cr...Figure 12.4 (a) The forests of the Pacific Northwest are some of the richest...Figure 12.5 The grazing effects of cattle may be analogous to those of wild ...Figure 12.6 Prescribed fire is a common technique for controlling the invasi...Figure 12.7 In some European nature reserves domestic livestock grazing is c...Figure 12.8 Regulating fishing is the primary way that fisheries managers co...Figure 12.9 Sustainable lobster fishing in Maine requires measuring the lobs...Figure 12.10 The current allocation of Maine’s forests from a triad perspect...Figure 12.11 (a) Many Mediterranean landscapes are characterized by bare gro...Figure 12.12 A conceptual representation of ecosystem degradation, restorati...Figure 12.13 Restoring oyster reef ecosystems often begins with creating an ...Figure 12.14 The lowest dam on the Penobscot River in Maine, before and afte...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 A bald eagle scavenges an elk carcass on the National Elk Refuge...Figure 13.2 Burning grasslands (top) is a common practice to promote populat...Figure 13.3 American burying beetles being reintroduced in Ohio, USA. This i...Figure 13.4 Populations of arid‐land animals can be limited by the availabil...Figure 13.5 In streams of eastern North America, large concrete nest boxes (Figure 13.6 Caspian tern decoys are used to provide a social stimulus for te...Figure 13.7 In some countries conservation officials are dehorning rhinos to...Figure 13.8 Setting appropriate harvest levels requires understanding the nu...Figure 13.9 Fencing can prevent this California tiger salamander (Ambystoma ...Figure 13.10 Gates can be placed to exclude humans intruding into the hibern...Figure 13.11 Fences around western snowy plover (Charadrius nivosus nivosus)...Figure 13.12 “Hands‐on” research and management also carries risk. Researche...Figure 13.13 Trapping brown‐headed cowbirds (bottom) from endangered Kirtlan...Figure 13.14 Translocations can be particularly useful to reintroduce specie...Figure 13.15 An isolated adder (viper) population in Sweden, known to be lim...Figure 13.16 Gathering turtle eggs and raising them in captivity can reduce ...Figure 13.17 Efforts to replace the eastern peregrine falcon sought to maxim...Figure 13.18 A diverse array of techniques was used to bring the black robin...Figure 13.19 Lord Howe Island (top left), the Lord Howe Island phasmid or st...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Traditional wood pastures in Transylvania, Central Romania, are ...Figure 14.2 Whether it is a stone‐wall‐lined pasture in Cumbria, United King...Figure 14.3 Farmers who maintain natural vegetation may benefit from increas...Figure 14.4 In urban landscapes oases for quite a few species of wild life c...Figure 14.5 Urban residents prefer higher species richness in urban green sp...Figure 14.6 The gray squirrel is a good example of a native, urban‐adapting ...Figure 14.7 Although urbanization is generally “bad for biodiversity,” citie...Figure 14.8 Public zoos, aquariums, and gardens have long emphasized educati...Figure 14.9 Many species would be extinct today without ex situ conservation...Figure 14.10 For some species the last‐known individual died in captivity, i...Figure 14.11 Small section of the studbook for red pandas (top part), and be...Figure 14.12 Many domestic plant species come in a startling variety because...Figure 14.13 Several efforts are currently under way to reconstruct extinct ...Figure 14.14 The Sumatran rhinoceros is highly endangered, and this led to a...Figure 14.15 A “production landscape” in Cambridgeshire in the United Kingdo...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Snakes epitomize widely divergent attitudes held by humans towar...Figure 15.2 Theological distinction between religions that emphasize “samene...Figure 15.3 His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I, the ecumeni...Figure 15.4 Urban versus rural residents differ in their attitudes toward na...Figure 15.5 Do you like tigers? The caption to this photo is “The first tige...Figure 15.6 Cultural and social norms around gender shape the way women and ...Figure 15.7 Women and men may differ in how they value particular species be...Figure 15.8 How do you feel about crocodiles? Values held about such creatur...Figure 15.9 “Plant blindness” refers to a widespread inability of humans to ...Figure 15.10 Wolves have different niches in the human psyche. Wolves may em...Figure 15.11 Mounting literature demonstrates that contact with nature gener...Figure 15.12 This figure conceptualizes an ethical sequence as a nested hier...Figure 15.13 Public relations campaigns have been essential to promote suppo...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Strong tensions arise when those asked to bear the costs of prot...Figure 16.2 Harvesting trees from natural forests for fuel, fiber, and const...Figure 16.3 In many parts of the world, wild meat is an important source of ...Figure 16.4 Coastal wetlands, such as this salt marsh at the Edwin B. Forsyt...Figure 16.5 Quantifying the economic value of timber or fish is straightforw...Figure 16.6 Gorillas are an excellent example of a species with significant ...Figure 16.7 The Chittenango ovate amber snail (inset, upper left) exists in ...Figure 16.8 Fisheries are recurring examples of the “tragedy of commons” dil...Figure 16.9 Habitat renting sees these otherwise dry rice fields in Californ...Figure 16.10 If carefully structured, ecotourism is one mechanism for allowi...Figure 16.11 Coastal development in Caye Caulker. ([a] Dronepicr/Wikimedia C...Figure 16.12 Many coastal and marine uses co‐occur in Belize’s coastal zone....Figure 16.13 Zones of human use for three alternative future management scen...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 These Atlantic puffins – colorful‐billed birds that look like mi...Figure 17.2 A consortium of conservation groups called the Alliance for Zero...Figure 17.3 An example of a scheme that integrates status and threats within...Figure 17.4 Although our ability to restore ecosystems and species that have...Figure 17.5 Ex situ conservation in zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, hatc...Figure 17.6 A useful analog for the general approach we need to take to cons...Figure 17.7 In an ideal world the distribution of rights and responsibilitie...Figure 17.8 Why is debate over overpopulation, the ultimate driver of biolog...Figure 17.9 International entities via treaty arrangements help regulate glo...Figure 17.10 Governments, NGOs, and local communities collaborate to advance...Figure 17.11 Many of the poorest nations have a vast array of biota and it i...Figure 17.12 NGOs play diverse roles in the conservation movement. Some repr...Figure 17.13 Green‐labeling involves an independent agency certifying that a...Figure 17.14 Groups of people who live in the same area, who share common re...Figure 17.15 Remaining a life‐long learner is one of the most important trai...Figure 17.16 There are many things you can to as an individual to “think glo...Figure 17.17 Supporting conservation groups is an important way to make a di...Figure 17.18 Become a professional conservationist. Around the world million...