Оглавление
Martinez J. Hewlett. Basic Virology
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Basic Virology
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Fourth Edition
Acknowledgments
PART I. Virology and Viral Disease
CHAPTER 1 Introduction – The Impact of Viruses on Our View of Life
THE SCIENCE OF VIROLOGY
The effect of virus infections on the host organism and populations – viral pathogenesis, virulence, and epidemiology
The interaction between viruses and their hosts
The history of virology
Examples of the impact of viral disease on human history
Examples of the evolutionary impact of the virus–host interaction
The origin of viruses
Viruses have a constructive as well as destructive impact on society
Viruses are not the smallest self‐replicating pathogens
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2 An Outline of Virus Replication and Viral Pathogenesis
VIRUS REPLICATION
Stages of virus replication in the cell
PATHOGENESIS OF VIRAL INFECTION
Stages of virus‐induced pathology
Initial stages of infection – entry of the virus into the host
The incubation period and spread of virus through the host
Multiplication of virus to high levels – occurrence of disease symptoms
Later stages of infection – changes in the cell
The later stages of infection – the immune response
The later stages of infection – virus spread to the next individual
The later stages of infection – fate of the host
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3 Virus Disease in Populations and Individual Animals
THE NATURE OF VIRUS RESERVOIRS
Some viruses with human reservoirs
Some viruses with vertebrate reservoirs
VIRUSES IN POPULATIONS
Viral epidemiology in small and large populations
Factors affecting the control of viral disease in populations
ANIMAL MODELS TO STUDY VIRAL PATHOGENESIS
A mouse model for studying poxvirus infection and spread
Rabies: where is the virus during its long incubation period?
Herpes simplex virus latency
Murine models
Rabbit models
Guinea pig models
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4 Patterns of Some Viral Diseases of Humans
THE DYNAMICS OF HUMAN–VIRUS INTERACTIONS
The stable association of viruses with their natural host places specific constraints on the nature of viral disease and mode of persistence
Classification of human disease–causing viruses according to virus–host dynamics
Viral diseases leading to persistence of the virus in the host are generally associated with viruses having long associations with human populations
Viral diseases associated with acute, severe infection are suggestive of zoonoses
PATTERNS OF SPECIFIC VIRAL DISEASES OF HUMANS
Acute infections followed by virus clearing. Colds and respiratory infections
Influenza
Variola
Infection of an “accidental” target tissue leading to permanent damage despite efficient clearing
Persistent viral infections
Papilloma and polyomavirus infections
Herpesvirus infections and latency
Other complications arising from persistent infections
Viral and subviral diseases with long incubation periods
Rabies
HIV/AIDS
Prion diseases
SOME VIRAL INFECTIONS TARGETING SPECIFIC ORGAN SYSTEMS
Viral infections of nerve tissue
Examples of viral encephalitis with grave prognosis. Rabies
Herpes encephalitis
Viral encephalitis with favorable prognosis for recovery
Viral infections of the liver (viral hepatitis)
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis delta (D)
Hepatitis E
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 4
Problems PART I
Additional Reading for Part I
PART II. Basic Properties of Viruses and Virus–Cell Interaction
CHAPTER 5 Virus Structure and Classification
THE FEATURES OF A VIRUS
Viral genomes
Viral capsids
Viral envelopes
CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES
The Baltimore scheme of virus classification
Disease‐based classification schemes for viruses
THE VIROSPHERE
THE HUMAN VIROME
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6 The Beginning andEnd of the Virus Replication Cycle
OUTLINE OF THE VIRUS REPLICATION CYCLE
VIRAL ENTRY. Animal virus entry into cells – the role of the cellular receptor
Mechanisms of entry of nonenveloped viruses
Entry of enveloped viruses
Entry of virus into plant cells
The injection of bacteriophage DNA into Escherichia coli
Nonspecific methods of introducing viral genomes into cells
LATE EVENTS IN VIRAL INFECTION: CAPSID ASSEMBLY AND VIRION RELEASE. Assembly of helical capsids
Assembly of icosahedral capsids
Generation of the virion envelope and egress of the enveloped virion
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7 The Innate Immune Response: Early Defense Against Pathogens
HOST CELL–BASED DEFENSES AGAINST VIRUS REPLICATION
Toll‐like receptors
Defensins
Interferon
Induction of interferon
The antiviral state
Measurement of interferon activity
Other cellular defenses against viral infection. Small RNA‐based defenses
THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE AND THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Two pathways of helper T response: the fork in the road
The immunological structure of a protein
Role of the antigen‐presenting cell in initiation of the immune response
Clonal selection of immune‐reactive lymphocytes
Immune memory
Complement‐mediated cell lysis
CONTROL AND DYSFUNCTION OF IMMUNITY
Specific viral responses to host immunity
Passive evasion of immunity – antigenic drift
Passive evasion of immunity – internal sanctuaries for infectious virus
Passive evasion of immunity – immune tolerance
Active evasion of immunity – immunosuppression
Active evasion of immunity – blockage of MHC antigen presentation
Consequences of immune suppression to virus infections
MEASUREMENT OF THE IMMUNE REACTION. Measurement of cell‐mediated (T‐cell) immunity. T‐cell proliferation assay
Tetramer assay
Measurement of antiviral antibody
Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs)
Neutralization tests
Inhibition of hemagglutination
Complement fixation
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8 Strategies to Protect Against and Combat Viral Infection
VACCINATION – INDUCTION OF IMMUNITY TO PREVENT VIRUS INFECTION. Antiviral vaccines
Smallpox and the history of vaccination
How a vaccine is produced
Live‐virus vaccines
Killed‐virus vaccines
Recombinant virus vaccines
Capsid and subunit vaccines
DNA and RNA vaccines
Edible vaccines
Problems with vaccine production and use
EUKARYOTIC CELL‐BASED DEFENSES AGAINST VIRUS REPLICATION. Other cellular defenses against viral infection. Small RNA‐based defenses
Enzymatic modification of viral genomes
ANTIVIRAL DRUGS
Targeting antiviral drugs to specific features of the virusreplication cycle
Acyclovir and the herpesviruses
Blocking influenza virus entry and virus maturation
Chemotherapeutic approaches for HIV
Multiple‐drug therapies to reduce or eliminate mutation to drug resistance
Other approaches
BACTERIAL ANTIVIRAL SYSTEMS – RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES
CRISPR/cas systems
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 8
Problems PART II
Additional Reading for Part II
PART III. Working with Virus
CHAPTER 9 Visualization and Enumeration of Virus Particles
USING THE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE TO STUDY AND COUNT VIRUSES
Counting (enumeration) of virions with the electron microscope
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY – A RAPID AND SENSITIVE METHOD FOR VISUALIZATION OF VIRUSES AND INFECTED CELLS, POTENTIALLY IN REAL TIME
INDIRECT METHODS FOR “COUNTING” VIRUS PARTICLES
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10 Replicating and Measuring Biological Activity of Viruses
CELL CULTURE TECHNIQUES
Maintenance of bacterial cells
Plant cell cultures
Culture of animal and human cells. Maintenance of cells in culture
Types of cells
Loss of contact inhibition of growth and immortalization of primary cells
THE OUTCOME OF VIRUS INFECTION IN CELLS. Fate of the virus
Fate of the cell following virus infection. Cell‐mediated maintenance of the intra‐ and intercellular environment
Virus‐mediated cytopathology – changes in the physical appearance of cells
Virus‐mediated cytopathology – changes in the biochemical properties of cells
MEASUREMENT OF THE BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY OF VIRUSES. Quantitative measure of infectious centers. Plaque assays
Generation of transformed cell foci
Use of virus titers to quantitatively control infection conditions
Examples of plaque assays
Statistical analysis of infection
Dilution endpoint methods
The relation between dilution endpoint and infectious units of virus
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11 Physical and Chemical Manipulation of the Structural Components of Viruses
VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
Isolation of structural proteins of the virus
Size fractionation of viral structural proteins
Determining the stoichiometry of capsid proteins
The poliovirus capsid – a virion with equimolar capsid proteins
Analysis of viral capsids that do not contain equimolar numbers of proteins
CHARACTERIZING VIRAL GENOMES
Sequence analysis of viral genomes
Sanger sequencing
High‐throughput equencing (HTS)
The polymerase chain reaction – detection and characterization of extremely small quantities of viral genomes or transcripts
Real‐time PCR for precise quantitative measures of viral dna
PCR detection of RNA
PCR as an epidemiological tool
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 12 Characterization of Viral Products Expressed in the Infected Cell
CHARACTERIZATION OF VIRAL PROTEINS IN THE INFECTED CELL
Pulse labeling of viral proteins at different times following infection
Use of immune reagents for study of viral proteins
Working with antibodies. The structure of antibody molecules
Monoclonal antibodies
Detection of viral proteins using immunofluorescence
Related methods for detecting antibodies bound to antigens
Use of bacterial staphylococcus a and streptococcus g proteins to detect and isolate antibody–antigen complexes
Immunoaffinity chromatography
DETECTING AND CHARACTERIZING VIRAL NUCLEIC ACIDS IN INFECTED CELLS. Detecting the synthesis of viral genomes
Characterization of viral mRNA expressed during infection
In situ hybridization
Further characterization of specific viral mRNA molecules
USE OF MICROARRAY TECHNOLOGY FOR GETTING A COMPLETE PICTURE OF THE EVENTS OCCURRING IN THE INFECTED CELL
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER 13 Viruses Use Cellular Processes to Express their GeneticInformation
PROKARYOTIC DNA REPLICATION IS AN ACCURATE ENZYMATIC MODEL FOR THE PROCESS GENERALLY
The replication of eukaryotic DNA
The replication of viral DNA
The effect of virus infection on host DNA replication
EXPRESSION OF mRNA
PROKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION
Prokaryotic RNA polymerase
The prokaryotic promoter and initiation of transcription
Control of prokaryotic initiation of transcription
Termination of prokaryotic transcription
EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION. The promoter and initiation of transcription
Control of initiation of eukaryotic transcription
Processing of precursor mRNA
Location of splices in eukaryotic transcripts
Posttranscriptional regulation of eukaryotic mRNA function
Virus‐induced changes in transcription and posttranscriptional processing
THE MECHANISM OF PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Eukaryotic translation
Prokaryotic translation
Virus‐induced changes in translation
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 13
Problems PART III
Additional Reading for Part III
VOLUME 1
VOLUME 2
PART IV. Replication Patterns of Specific Viruses
CHAPTER 14 Replication of Positive‐Sense RNAViruses
RNA VIRUSES – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
A general picture of RNA‐directed RNA replication
REPLICATION OF POSITIVE‐SENSE RNA VIRUSES WHOSE GENOMES ARE TRANSLATED AS THE FIRST STEP IN GENE EXPRESSION
POSITIVE‐SENSE RNA VIRUSES ENCODING A SINGLE LARGE OPEN READING FRAME. Picornavirus replication
The poliovirus genetic map and expression of poliovirus proteins
The poliovirus replication cycle
Picornavirus cytopathology and disease
Flavivirus replication
POSITIVE‐SENSE RNA VIRUSES ENCODING MORE THAN ONE TRANSLATIONAL READING FRAME
Two viral mRNAs are produced in different amounts during togavirus infections
The viral genome
The virus replication cycle. Virus Entry
Early gene expression
Viral genome replication and generation of 26s mRNA
Generation of structural proteins
Togavirus cytopathology and disease
A somewhat more complex scenario of multiple translational reading frames and subgenomic mRNA expression: coronavirus replication
Coronavirus replication
Cytopathology and disease caused by coronaviruses
REPLICATION OF PLANT VIRUSES WITH RNA GENOMES
Viruses with one genome segment
Viruses with two genome segments
Viruses with three genome segments
REPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES WITH RNA GENOMES
Regulated translation of bacteriophage mRNA
Case 1: Enteroviruses
Case 2: Zika‐Induced Guillain–Barré Syndrome
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 15 Replication Strategies of RNA Viruses Requiring RNA‐directed mRNA Transcription as the First Step in Viral Gene Expression
REPLICATION OF NEGATIVE‐SENSE RNA VIRUSES WITH A MONOPARTITE GENOME
The replication of vesicular stomatitis virus – a model for mononegavirales
The vesicular stomatitis virus virion and genome
Generation, capping, and polyadenylation of mRNA
The generation of new negative‐sense virion RNA
The mechanism of host shutoff by vesicular stomatitis virus
The cytopathology and diseases caused by rhabdoviruses
Paramyxoviruses
The pathogenesis of paramyxoviruses
Filoviruses and their pathogenesis
Bornaviruses
Other mononegavirales families
NEGATIVE‐SENSE RNA VIRUSES WITH A MULTIPARTITE GENOME
Involvement of the nucleus in flu virus replication
Generation of new flu nucleocapsids and maturation of the virus
Influenza A epidemics
OTHER NEGATIVE‐SENSE RNA VIRUSES WITH MULTIPARTITE GENOMES. Bunyavirales
Virus structure and replication
Pathogenesis
Arenaviruses
Virus gene expression
Pathogenesis
VIRUSES WITH DOUBLE‐STRANDED RNA GENOMES
Orthoreovirus structure
The orthoreovirus replication cycle
Pathogenesis
SUBVIRAL PATHOGENS
Viroids
Prions
Case 3: Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 15
CHAPTER 16 Replication Strategies of Small and Medium‐sized DNA Viruses
DNA VIRUSES EXPRESS GENETIC INFORMATION AND REPLICATE THEIR GENOMES IN SIMILAR, YET DISTINCT, WAYS
PAPOVAVIRUS REPLICATION
Replication of SV40 virus – the model polyomavirus
The SV40 genome and genetic map
The control region
The early transcription unit
The late transcription unit
The polyadenylation region
Productive infection by SV40
Virus attachment and entry
Early gene expression
The role of T antigen in viral DNA replication and the early/late transcription switch
Abortive infection of cells nonpermissive for SV40 replication
The replication of papillomaviruses
The HPV‐16 genome
Virus replication and cytopathology
THE REPLICATION OF ADENOVIRUSES
Physical properties of adenovirus
Capsid structure
The adenovirus genome
The adenovirus replication cycle
Early events
Adenovirus DNA replication
Late gene expression
VA transcription and cytopathology
Transformation of nonpermissive cells by adenovirus
REPLICATION OF SOME SINGLE‐STRANDED DNA VIRUSES
Replication of parvoviruses
Dependovirus DNA integrates in a specific site in the host cell genome
Parvoviruses have potentially exploitable therapeutic applications
DNA viruses infecting vascular plants
Geminiviruses
The single‐stranded DNA bacteriophage ΦX174 packages its genes very compactly
Case 4: JC virus (chapter 16)
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 17 Replication of Some Nuclear‐replicating Eukaryotic DNA Viruses with Large Genomes
HERPESVIRUS REPLICATION AND LATENCY. The herpesviruses as a group
Genetic complexity of herpesviruses
Common features of herpesvirus replication in the host
The replication of the prototypical alphaherpesvirus – HSV. The HSV virion
The viral genome
HSV productive infection
Initial steps in infection: virus entry
Immediate‐early gene expression
Early gene expression
Genome replication and late gene expression
Virus assembly and release
HSV latency and LAT
HSV transcription during latency and reactivation
How do the LAT and other specific HSV genes function to accommodate reactivation?
EBV latent infection of lymphocytes: a different set of problems and answers
Pathology of herpesvirus infections
Herpesviruses as infectious co‐carcinogens
BACULOVIRUS: AN INSECT VIRUS WITH IMPORTANT PRACTICAL USES IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Virion structure
Viral gene expression and genome replication
Pathogenesis
Importance of baculoviruses in biotechnology
Case 5: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) (for Part IV, Chapter 17)
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 17
CHAPTER 18 Replication of Cytoplasmic DNA Viruses and “Large” Bacteriophages
POXVIRUSES – DNA VIRUSES THAT REPLICATE IN THE CYTOPLASM OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The pox virion is complex and contains virus‐coded transcription enzymes
The poxvirus replication cycle
Early gene expression
Genome replication
Intermediate and late stages of replication
Pathogenesis and history of poxvirus infections
Is smallpox virus a potential biological terror weapon?
REPLICATION OF “LARGE” DNA‐CONTAINING BACTERIOPHAGES
Components of large DNA‐containing phage virions
Replication of phage T7. The genome
Phage‐controlled transcription
The Practical Value of T7
T4 bacteriophage: the basic model for all DNA viruses
The T4 genome
Regulated gene expression during T4 replication
Capsid maturation and release
Replication of phage λ: a “Simple” model for latency and reactivation
The phage λ genome
Phage λ gene expression immediately after infection
The action of cro: lytic growth
Modulating the activity of the N protein: priming the cell for lysogeny
Action of cI, cII, and cIII: establishment of lysogeny
Integration of λ DNA: generation of the prophage
Biochemistry of the decision between lytic and lysogenic infection in E. coli. Competition for binding by cro and cI at the operator OR
Factors affecting the lytic/lysogenic “decision”
A GROUP OF ALGAL VIRUSES SHARES FEATURES OF ITS GENOME STRUCTURE WITH POXVIRUSES AND BACTERIOPHAGES
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 19 Retroviruses: Converting RNA to DNA
RETROVIRUS FAMILIES AND THEIR STRATEGIES OF REPLICATION
The molecular biology of retroviruses. Retrovirus structural proteins
The retrovirus genome
The R:U5:(PBS):leader region
The gag, pol, and env genes
The 3′ end of the genome
Genetic maps of representative retroviruses. Oncornaviruses
Human T‐cell leukemia virus (HTLV)
Replication of retroviruses: an outline of the replication process. Initiation of infection
Generation of cDNA
Migration of the cDNA (with integrase) into the nucleus
Integration of the retroviral cDNA into the host genome
Expression of viral mRNA and RNA genomes
Capsid assembly and maturation
Action of reverse transcriptase and RNase H in synthesis of cDNA
Retrovirus gene expression, assembly, and maturation. Transcription and translation of viral mRNA
Capsid assembly and morphogenesis
MECHANISMS OF RETROVIRUS TRANSFORMATION
Transformation through the action of a viral oncogene – a subverted cellular growth control gene
Oncornavirus alteration of normal cellular transcriptional control of growth regulation
Oncornavirus transformation by growth stimulation of neighboring cells
CELLULAR GENETIC ELEMENTS RELATED TO RETROVIRUSES
Retrotransposons
The relationship between transposable elements and viruses
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 19
CHAPTER 20 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV‐1) and Related Lentiviruses
HIV‐1 AND RELATED LENTIVIRUSES
THE ORIGIN OF HIV‐1 AND AIDS
HIV‐1 AND LENTIVIRAL REPLICATION
DESTRUCTION OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM BY HIV‐1
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 20
CHAPTER 21 Hepadnaviruses: Variations on the Retrovirus Theme
THE VIRION AND THE VIRAL GENOME
THE VIRAL REPLICATION CYCLE
THE PATHOGENESIS OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF HEPATITIS B VIRUS INFECTION
HEPATITIS DELTA VIRUS
A PLANT “HEPADNAVIRUS”: CAULIFLOWER MOSAIC VIRUS
Genome structure
Viral gene expression and genome replication
THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF HEPADNAVIRUSES
Case 6: Hepatitis B
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 21
Problems PART IV
Additional Reading for Part IV
VIRUS RESOURCES ON THE INTERNET
General virus information and databases
Specific virus sites. Adenoviruses
Arenaviruses
Baculoviruses
Bacteriophages
Bunyaviruses
Calicivirus
Coronaviruses
Filoviruses
Flaviviruses
Geminivirus
Hantavirus
Hepadnavirus
Hepatitis delta virus
Herpesvirus
Human immunodeficiency virus
Oncogenes
Oncornavirus
Orthomyxoviruses
Papillomaviruses
Papovaviruses
Paramyxoviruses
Picornaviruses
Poxviruses
Prions
Reoviruses
Retroviruses
Rhabdoviruses
Rhinoviruses
St. Louis encephalitis virus
Togaviruses
Viral hepatitis
Viroids
PART V. Molecular Genetics of Viruses
CHAPTER 22 The Molecular Genetics of Viruses
MUTATIONS IN GENES AND RESULTING CHANGES TO PROTEINS
ANALYSIS OF MUTATIONS
Recombination
ISOLATION OF MUTANTS. Selection
HSV thymidine kinase – a portable selectable marker
Screening
A TOOL KIT FOR MOLECULAR VIROLOGISTS. Viral genomes
LOCATING SITES OF RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASE CLEAVAGE ON THE VIRAL GENOME – RESTRICTION MAPPING
CLONING VECTORS
Cloning of fragments of viral genomes using bacterial plasmids
Cloning single‐stranded DNA with bacteriophage M13
DNA animal virus vectors
Baculovirus
Vaccinia
Adenovirus and adeno‐associated virus provide vectors that can deliver genes to specific tissue
RNA virus expression systems. Retrovirus vectors
A togavirus vector
Defective virus particles
DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS OF VIRAL GENES
Site‐directed mutagenesis
GENERATION OF RECOMBINANT VIRUSES
Homologous recombination
Bacterial artificial chromosomes
CRISPR‐cas
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 22
CHAPTER 23 Molecular Pathogenesis
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF VIRAL PATHOGENESIS
ANIMAL MODELS. Choosing a model: natural host versus surrogate models
Development of new models: transgenic animals
Chimeric models: the SCID‐hu mouse
Considerations regarding the humane use of animals
METHODS FOR THE STUDY OF PATHOGENESIS
Assays of virulence
Analysis of viral spread within the host
Resolving the infection to the level of single cells
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE HOST RESPONSE
Immunological assays
Use of transgenic mice to dissect critical components of the host immune response that modulate the viral infection
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 23
CHAPTER 24 Viral Bioinformatics
BIOINFORMATICS
Bioinformatics and virology
BIOLOGICAL DATABASES
Primary databases
Secondary databases
Composite databases
Other databases
BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
Similarity‐searching tools
Protein functional analysis
Sequence analysis
Structural modeling
Structural analysis
SYSTEMS BIOLOGY AND VIRUSES
VIRAL INTERNET RESOURCES
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 24
CHAPTER 25 Viruses and the Future – Problems and Promises
CLOUDS ON THE HORIZON – EMERGING DISEASE
Sources and causes of emergent virus disease
The threat of bioterrorism
WHAT ARE THE PROSPECTS OF USING MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY TO ELIMINATE SPECIFIC VIRAL AND OTHER INFECTIOUS DISEASES?
SILVER LININGS – VIRUSES AS THERAPEUTIC AGENTS
Viruses for gene delivery
Using viruses to destroy other viruses
Viruses and nanotechnology
The place of viruses in the biosphere
WHY STUDY VIROLOGY?
QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 25
Problems PART V
Additional Reading for Part V
Appendix – Resource Center
BOOKS OF HISTORICAL AND BASIC VALUE
BOOKS ON VIROLOGY
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY TEXTS
DETAILED SOURCES
SOURCES FOR EXPERIMENTAL PROTOCOLS
THE INTERNET
Virology Sites
Important Websites for Organizations and Facilities of Interest
Technical Glossary
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
