Читать книгу Morals and Manners in Islam - Marwan Ibrahim Al-Kaysi - Страница 8
ОглавлениеAdab is an Arabic term meaning custom; it denotes a habit, an etiquette, a manner of conduct derived from people considered as models.1
During the first two centuries following the emergence of Islam, the term ‘ādāb’ carried ethical and social implications. , The root db means marvellous thing, or preparation, feast. ‘Ādāb in this sense was the equivalent of the Latin urbanitas, civility, courtesy, refinement of the cities in contrast to bedouin uncouthness.’2 So ādāb of something means good manner of that thing. The plural is ādāb. Ādāb al-Islām, therefore, means the good manners adopted by Islam, derived from its teachings and instructions. It is in this sense that it will be used in this book.
Manners in many cultures other than the Islamic are determined by local conditions and are therefore subject to changes in those conditions. According to W. G. Sumner, ‘From recurrent needs arise habits for the individual and customs for the group, but these results are consequences which were never conscious, and never foreseen or intended.’3
Islamic manners and customs are not in this sense ‘unconscious’. They are derived from the two main sources of Islam, namely the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, the Prophet’s deeds, words and indirect commandments, and are therefore, in the strictest sense, divinely inspired.
The Qur’ān and the Sunnah contain the broad principles needed to negotiate the problems that arise in human societies in different ages. As a complete way of life, Islam orders economic, political and devotional activity as well as manners relating to everyday human exchanges and routines. Islam is not confined merely to devotional and legal manners; it embraces criteria and values, attitudes, customs and manners in all reaches of human concern and relationship. As a portion of this whole, Islamic manners are derived from the broad objectives of Islam and reflect its broad ideas and values.
Ādāb al-Islām should neither be conceived nor practised in isolation from the whole. Rather, their interrelation with other elements of Islam should always be kept in mind. Nor, likewise, should the different elements within ādāb al-Islām be treated as isolatable, for these too are closely interrelated. To give a single, conspicuous example: a Muslim is required to sleep early so that he may rise early for the Fajr (dawn) Prayer.
The divine inspiration of manners in Islam confers on them a religious character which motivates proper adherence. It does not follow from their religious character that every detail of these manners is obligatory. The prescribed manners of Islam vary, in fact, from the ‘forbidden’ to the ‘recommended’ – as we shall see in the principal rules of Islamic manners. The former are upheld and enforced by law, the latter do not expose offenders to any formal trial or punishment except in the disapproval of other members of the Muslim community. A third group of manners are those which do not even lead to disapproval if one violates them.
Nor does it follow from the divine origin of Islamic manners that the system should be rigid and inflexible. Islam is not the sort of ideal that is impenetrable to human experience or inapplicable to existing world conditions. Rather, the nature of the system is such that it is flexible in many respects while stable in others, the element of flexibility being grounded in human reasoning to which Islam appeals and which may even be reckoned among its general sources.
The two basic sources of Islam, the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, include, besides many detailed rules, general principles which ultimately govern all matters related to the various aspects of life, religious, social, economic, political, etc. None of these general principles are subject to historical change. But conditions do change. The means for deriving rules for new problems in new situations are provided for within Islam in ijtihād. Ijtihād is the disciplined use of independent individual reasoning to draw the necessary conclusions in accordance with the essence and spirit of Islam and in adherence to its immutable general principles. Thus, through the faith and diligence of qualified scholars, the detail of Islamic teachings can respond effectively to the problem of historical change. The teachings of Islam are, in fact, fully cognizant of human nature and human needs. Islam acknowledges the realities of life and deals with them in the most practical way. There is then no impulse to abrogate or adjust the general principles of the faith in order to adapt them to particular conditions. The realism and practicability of Islamic manners is easily illustrated. For example, fasting the full lunar month of Ramaḍān is a primary obligation upon all Muslims, yet Islam (understanding the vicissitudes of travelling) exempts the traveller from fasting, requiring that he make up lost days when the hardship is over. Likewise, women who have recently given birth, or are in the monthly cycle, and those seriously ill, are similarly exempted. The five daily prayers are, again, a primary obligation, yet the traveller is permitted, according to some aḥādīth, to combine certain of the five occasions of ṣalāt and perform them together, also to shorten the four - rak’ah prayers to two-rak’ah prayers, known as qaṣr. Islam allows that the precise, final detail of the application of manners may differ, according to the fashions and circumstances of local groups, provided, of course, that the main principles of dress, of dietary laws, etc. are adhered to. Islamic manners are meant to order daily life, to give it rhythm, dignity and serenity; they are not a set of snobbish or legalistic rituals to complicate daily life.
Characteristics: Comprehensiveness and Morality
Islam determines every aspect of the life of a Muslim. This essential fact is very difficult for non-Muslims to grasp. For the believer, Islam gives the criteria for judging all of his behaviour and conduct; it determines his relationship with other individuals, with society as a whole, with the physical world, and it determines also his relationship to his own self. Many examples can be given of what in secular communities is the preserve of arbitrary individual will or the equally arbitrary demands of the social milieu. Food, for example, may be prepared only from what is allowed by Islam; a Muslim can make no use of, for example, pork. A Muslim woman may not uncover her feet in public because in Islam it is not permitted. Goods forbidden to a Muslim, such as wine, may not be exchanged as gifts. If a Muslim is invited to a wedding feast, he should (if physically possible) accept the invitation because it is obligatory to do so. Death-bed wishes may not be fulfilled if they contradict the teachings of Islam, such as a request to allocate an extra share of inheritance to one of the dead person’s heirs, or to have his body cremated.
Ādāb al-Islām are a comprehensive code covering almost every aspect of social behaviour, a part of the complete way of life which is Islam. As the different parts of Islam make up an integral unity, the application of ādāb al-Islām in detachment from the rest will not bring about total realization of Islam, indeed it may, in certain respects, become meaningless. The customs and manners discussed in this book are considered suitable for Muslims: those who have a proper religious attitude will instinctively seek to observe the good manners commended or required by Islam.
The various aspects of Islam, ideological, spiritual, legal, social, economic, political, etc., are mutually consistent and supplement each other. For example, faith is essential as it instils in Muslims the spirit of observing the ethical, moral, legal and other prescriptions without external compulsion, Equally, voluntary observance of those prescriptions supports and enhances faith, opening up the path from devotion to social action, linking the two in a strong, stable bond. More specifically the unitary strength of Islam may be seen in, for instance, the manners concerning women, which follow from and sustain the Islamic concept of Muslim womanhood in an Islamic community.
The breadth of ādāb al-Islām contrasts sharply with the limitations of ‘etiquette’.4 The manners of Islam are not merely rules of courtesy for various occasions, but cover the whole range of human relations from the simplest actions to the most elaborate of social occasions. The true purpose of Western ‘etiquette’ (even after it had been extended beyond royal circles to ordinary people) ‘seems to have been the protection of the upper class’.5 By contrast, the true purpose of ādāb al-Islām lies in their religious character and nature, They derive from and sustain man’s need to remember God in his daily routine; they are designed to keep up his remembrance of God and to help him act rightly and correctly. This is conspicuous in the invocations of God that accompany most everyday incidents of behaviour in Islam. A Muslim should start and end his day, when waking up and when going to sleep, by mentioning God. He should thank and praise God when taking food and drink, when buying new clothes or other articles of use. Mentioning God is recommended even when relieving oneself. It is recommended to say, when entering the lavatory: ‘In the name of Allah. Allah, in You I take refuge from demons’, and on leaving the lavatory, ask for His forgiveness. Remembering God and asking Him for perfection and guidance are of special importance when travelling. It may be noted here that the major festivals in Islam are in fact collective celebrations of the successful completion of two principal religious obligations, namely, fasting in the month of Ramaḍān and ḥajj (pilgrimage to Makkah).
One of the chief foundations of ādāb al-Islām is morality, the cornerstone of a nation’s self-confidence and strength, as surely as corruption and immorality are one of the main causes of a nation’s decline and disintegration. The insistence on morality often gives to the Islamic way of life an appearance of rigidity or puritanism; as one writer has noted: ‘. ..in regard to certain aspects of morality, Islam is more rigid and more puritan than certain other systems of life in our times.’6 But given the importance of morality to the health of a nation, normative Islam is surely right to block all ways leading to corruption, such as illicit sex and luxurious living. Material comforts should not be at the expense of human virtues, individual and collective; politics also (considered, in non-Islamic thought, as immoral or even amoral) must conform to the goals of Islam, the development of human character, the humanity of man.
The ideal of the humanity of man is grounded in the concept of al-‘amāl al-Ṣāliḥ or virtuous deeds. The term extends beyond what is normally understood as the ‘religious’ domain and covers a wide range of human activities (in relation to others, to the animate and inanimate environment) sanctioned within Islamic faith and law. The Prophet’s life provides many concrete instances: to act justly between two people, to help a man onto his mount, to help load his belongings, to speak good words, to remove nuisances from paths or roads, to give food and water to stray dogs and cats, to be forward in greeting others, to visit relatives, etc.; even the act of making love within marriage is valued as a good deed. The most inclusive characteristics of the ideal Muslim personality are humility, modesty and simplicity or naturalness (lack of affectation). Pride and arrogance in any aspect of conduct are not accepted, as no individual is superior to another except in his degree of faith and contribution of good deeds.
Thus, clothes that show haughtiness, that flaunt social status, are forbidden. Manners in eating should demonstrate humility before the occasion as well as respect for the meal: leaning on a cushion while eating is forbidden. Sitting on the floor when eating is a sign of humility, and therefore recommended. Furnishings should show modesty and restraint; for example, the bed should not be set too high above the ground. Gait in walking, manner of address in greeting and in speech generally, should avoid any taint of arrogance.
Islam requires and demands moderation and naturalness in all aspects of life, worldly and religious. Extremism, exaggeration, eccentricity and affectation, caprice and complicatedness are rejected. The insistence on a certain informality in ādāb al-Islām is intended to ease their use by the vast majority of the members of the Muslim society. Naturalness of manners is valued as a means of relieving social tension, of enabling and strengthening social relations.
Western ‘etiquette’ originated in the Royal courts of Europe, and was invented to meet ‘the requirement of behaviour in courts and among aristocrats everywhere’.7 The meaning of etiquette was weakened when it spread to all classes. To this day Western etiquette varies from group to group. Members of so-called ‘high society’ observe more complicated and rigid forms of etiquette than the less well-to-do. This comes out of and helps sustain the class system.
Ādāb al-Islām, however, are different. They are not designed to divide society according to social classes. The rules, revealed through the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, were not formulated by certain groups, i.e. the rich and powerful in order to subdue or distance other groups. Islam attaches great importance to the adherence of the whole of Muslim society to its ādāb. It does not consider these manners as the privilege or preserve of a certain group, but as a privilege open to every member of the Muslim society. A variety of etiquette levels is non-existent in Islam.
The function of ādāb al-Islām in unifying Muslim communities, as well as being an expression of their unity, is clear. But ādāb al-Islām are not just about coherence or consistency of behaviour; they are about coherence or consistency of right behaviour. The notion of ‘proper’ conduct may not, in Islam, be separated from the notion of ‘good’ deeds, nor from ‘faith’ and ‘devotion’. Faith and good deeds are both necessary in this world for a prosperous and ideal society in which there is mutual and shared responsibility. And in the Hereafter, faith and good deeds are the necessary conditions for forgiveness and salvation, for admission to Paradise. A large number of verses in the Qur’ān link faith and good deeds as defining characteristics of a true Muslim.
In Islam, what is ‘central’ and ‘essential’ is determined by its broad relation to the goals of Islam, among which is the civilization or advancement of human society, the promotion of happiness and prosperity, material as well as moral. On examination, the prescriptions and prohibitions which form part of Islamic teachings will be seen to be not arbitrary decrees but an ordered system of commandments whose purpose (besides testing man’s obedience and loyalty to God) is the advancement of man, according to a safe, proper and perfect course, at the individual, family and societal levels. The details of ādāb al-Islām are not meaningless formalities, unwelcome to the individual because they are unrelated to the actual needs of his personal or social life. On the contrary, they directly address the different basic functions that concern all members of society at almost every moment of their lives. They are intended to concentrate attention on the central and essential, to rescue man from the peripheral and distracting. They distinguish means from ends and help individual and community to administer personal and collective resources effectively. It may be helpful to illustrate this general point by listing the basic human needs and functions as they are viewed within the perspective of ādāb al-Islām:
1. Clothes are primarily intended to protect the wearer against the climate, and to conceal parts of the body.
2. The purpose of housing is to provide shelter from the climate and to secure necessary privacy and safety.
3. Cleanliness, as well as protecting man from disease, expresses his humanity.
4. Adornment, make-up, etc. are a woman’s means to look attractive and pleasant before her husband.
5. Speech is important as a means of communication, serving in the essential functions of exchange and relationship with other people, such as buying, selling, etc.
6. Humour reduces tension and relaxes people at a gathering.
7. Gifts are meant to express goodwill and to foster good relations with others.
8. Inviting others to eat, sharing food with others, makes and strengthens social bonds.
9. Social relations themselves are valued because they prevent or limit isolation of the individual. Social customs are valued because they create stability and harmony in social relations.
10. Graves are primarily for honouring the dead, but also to protect the living from the decaying corpse.
11. Animals, in direct relation to man, are intended to be used only for specific purposes such as provision of food, labour, transport. They are not meant to be used by man for his entertainment as, for instance, when animals are set against each other.
It will be immediately obvious that, without the restraint of ādāb al-Islām, all these means become ends, destroying a proper sense of values and priorities. Clothes, houses, parties, gifts, drain the resources of individual and community, as people (having lost sight of the true function of these things) spend money in a fruitless endeavour to prove to others their greater purchasing power; in their world the ability to waste goods is a proof of personal success and of the success of the society to which they belong. The consequences of self-adornment or amusement becoming ends in themselves can be measured in the fortunes devoted to these activities by the vast majority in Western countries and, by increasing numbers in Muslim countries. But the real cost of so defying the realities of human accountability under God’s law, is the loss of the soul of each individual who hurries fretfully from one escapism to another, seeking to be always excited or distracted and, whenever he catches himself alone, feeling profoundly empty and wretched.
Ādāb al-Islām are designed to avoid such ungrateful waste of human potential, and encourage man to exercise that potential in full conformity with the true purposes and realities of his life. The rules of conduct for a Muslim life contain sound wisdom, whether viewed in religious, cultural, social, economic, psychological or even medical terms. It follows that, for a healthy, balanced life, individual and community should apply these rules comprehensively and conscientiously. Wherever they are applied, two things must always be borne in mind, namely kindness and consideration. Among the root meanings of ‘Islam’ (besides surrender or submission) is peace; a ‘Muslim’ is one who has submitted to the decrees of God, who has sought to make peace with God and His creatures. Moreover, the Prophet defines a ‘Muslim’ as one who does not harm others by hand or tongue.
According to a saying of the Prophet, kindness is required in every instance of Muslim conduct. One of tile main ends of ādāb al-Islām is to train people to be kind and gentle in every matter and toward every thing. The following examples will illustrate:
1. Speaking should be loud enough to be audible to those addressed, never louder.
2. Bad or objectionable language should be avoided.
3. Laughter should not be characterized by loud or unpleasant sounds.
4. Weeping should be restrained and polite, not hysterically loud or abandoned.
5. Eating and drinking should be done at a gentle, dignified pace.
6. It is proper for a Muslim to restrain his anger, keeping himself within the bounds of courtesy.
7. Parents should give their children beautiful, meaningful names, and avoid names indicating difficulty and sadness.
8. Tenderness should be a most essential element in the lovemaking process.
9. Smiling at other people when meeting them is recommended.
10. Looking pleasantly at others while conversing with them is required as polite conduct.
11. It is necessary that a Muslim be gentle when criticizing others for something they might have done.
Inflicting any kind of harm or offence physically, psychologically or morally must be avoided. In the words of the Prophet, ‘There should be neither harming nor reciprocating harm.’8
Anything done or said with disregard for others is not considered proper Muslim conduct. In fact, good behaviour in Islam depends to a large extent on showing consideration toward others. The contribution of ādāb al-Islām in this regard is enormous. Just a few examples will illustrate:
1. Disgracing or reviling others’ beliefs, directly or indirectly, is forbidden.
2. The main principle governing one’s behaviour on the road is to avoid harming, impeding or disturbing others, including such acts as spitting or making loud noises..
3. Reviling another or speaking of his mistakes is disapproved, even if a Muslim is reviled by him and even though his faults are spoken of by him.
4. Making jokes, using impolite or sarcastic terms at the expense of others, is prohibited.. Character assassination through insinuation, backbiting and undesirable conjecture is also prohibited.
5. Distasteful expressions should be avoided while eating, as they might disturb or upset others.
6. In a group of three people, two should not talk privately as this might offend the third.
7. Reviling the dead is forbidden as this causes hurt to their living relatives.
8. In socializing with others, their comfort and well-being must be kept in mind, for instance, a person’s clothes or mouth should not smell bad; after eating onions or garlic, it is preferable to avoid socializing.
9. To squeeze between two men in a mosque or to step on others while proceeding to a place, is forbidden, as this will annoy them.
10. To relieve oneself in still water, in the shade, on the road or in any public place, is forbidden, as this might prevent others from making normal use of such facilities and/or be a health hazard.
11. When shoes are taken off, they should be put in a place where they will not disturb others by their smell.
12. When sneezing, the mouth and nose should be covered; when yawning, the hand should cover the mouth; when speaking, one should not speak loudly, as this might annoy others. Even the sitting posture should be such as will not offend others, as does, for example, turning one’s back to them.
Role of Ādāb al-lslām in Social Relationships
Among the main aims of ādāb al-Islām is to help in establishing and maintaining healthy social relationships. As will be seen, among the necessary attributes of the ideal Muslim personality, are honesty, respect for others, honouring one’s word, restraint of anger, patience, modesty, kindness, etc. These virtues eliminate mistrust and create trust, the necessary foundation upon which alone sound relations can be built and developed.
In the Islamic view it is not enough simply to avoid doing harm to others, nor even to wish for others what you wish for yourself. What is required of Muslims toward each other is mutual responsibility and positive assistance.
As will be seen, formality in the manners of Islam is reduced to the barest possible minimum. This enables freer social intercourse, makes the social machinery run more smoothly and facilitates meetings and visits, for isolation is not recommended in Islam. Muslims are encouraged to meet each other, for that strengthens social bonds and defends the individual against the psychological consequences of social isolation. Moreover, Muslims are encouraged to meet frequently. It is the duty of the host to be hospitable and generous to his guest. Acceptance of an invitation to a meal is recommended and, in the case of an invitation to a wedding meal, acceptance becomes obligatory.
Visiting the sick, taking part in funeral processions, offering condolences to the bereaved, comforting and encouraging them, providing food for them, exchanging gifts with other members of the society, shaking hands when meeting or parting, sharing other happy occasions such as weddings and births, etc., are all ways to strengthen and develop social relations. Particular importance is attached to such exchanges between relatives and neighbours.
Islam has recommended Muslims to hold feasts from time to time and invite others to these occasions. It has also prescribed holding feasts on certain occasions such as weddings, births, the day of Sacrifice, etc. Eating together makes social ties stronger between members of a community irrespective of social status: this is why Islam disapproves of the feast to which the rich are invited and from which the poor are excluded and considers it the worst of feasts.
Social relations should be quite free of personal interest, and engaged in wholly for the sake of God. Thus, a Muslim should not accept a gift presented by someone who intends thereby to influence him favourably. Invitations given out of some personal interest, e.g. in the hope of personal popularity or in expectation of some return, should be rejected.
Social life is encouraged at a wider level, namely by meetings of the community as a whole. It is recommended that the five prayers prescribed in Islam be performed in congregation in the mosque. This provides the opportunity for a large number and variety of people to meet more than once each day. There is the weekly gathering on Friday to perform Friday prayer which, with certain exceptions, is obligatory upon every Muslim. Also, there are the two annual occasions to meet on the feast of Fiṭr (breaking the fast) and the feast of Aḍḥā (Sacrifice). Moreover, hundreds of thousands of Muslims from all over the world meet every year, for a few days during the pilgrimage season, in Makkah.
The mosque is an important centre where Muslims may discuss religious, social and political issues related to the community and the nation as a whole. Therefore personal matters (e.g. the announcement of lost articles, or other private business) should not be discussed in the mosque. As it is a place for public meeting it should be kept clean -that is the responsibility of every Muslim. Cleanliness and orderliness of the mosque contribute vitally to the success of social meetings held within it.
Personal cleanliness is an important factor when communicating with others, and Muslims are required to bath frequently and, where possible, use perfume, the more so when public occasions (the Friday congregation, for example, or the two ‘Īd festivals, etc.) arise. Especially stressed are those areas of commonest contact, namely the face and hands, and above all the mouth, which deserves to be kept clean and pleasant-smelling because talking is so vital a factor in communication and contact with others.
Religious Aspect of Ādāb al-Islām
Islam is based upon tawḥīd, the absolute Oneness and Uniqueness of God, and rejects all kinds of polytheism whether primitive or evolved. The Sharī‘āh is, in fact, the embodiment of this concept, and its every detail springs from it. Ādāb al-Islām are consistent with tawḥīd, affirming and serving this most fundamental principle. Here are a few examples:
1. Names that mean being a slave of someone other than God, such as ‘Abd al-Nabi (the slave of the Prophet), are forbidden.
2. Reviling natural phenomena, such as wind or rain, which are under God’s command, is forbidden. So too is reviling one’s fate, or the attribution of injustice to God.
3. Expressions or exclamations that contradict tawḥīd, that seem to ascribe partners to God, for example, ‘What God wills and what so-and-so wills!’ or ‘I have no help except from God and you!’, are strictly forbidden.
4. Slaughtering animals must be done only for the sake of God; if His name is not taken deliberately, or if some other name is taken instead, the meat of the animal becomes ḥarām, forbidden, the sacrifice void.
5. On the occasion of someone’s death, expressions that contradict Islamic faith, such as, ‘What will become of me now that our source of independence is gone’ or ‘He died a premature death’, are forbidden.
6. Swearing by people or things other than God, His Names or Attributes, is forbidden.
7. A vow pledged for anything or anyone other than God, is null and void and should not be fulfilled.
8. A Muslim is required not to make absolute assertions without referring to God’s will, and to say instead Inshā’ Allāh (If God wills).
9. To bow in respect to any person in not permitted, as bowing is reserved only for God in the act of prayer.
10. Superstition, for example to refrain from travelling because of some supposed omen against it, is forbidden, because this contradicts the principle of belief in destiny.
11. The purpose of visiting the cemetery, which is recommended in Islam, is to remind the living of death, thus influencing them to better their obedience to God and improve their conduct and behaviour in relation to others.
12. The Ka‘bah is the first house of God on earth. It was built by the Prophet Ibrāhīm and his son Ismā‘īl at Makkah in Arabia. Every Muslim faces the qiblah in prayer the world over; it is a symbol of Muslim unity and of the unity of Islam. But it orients more than the Muslim’s prayer. When animals are slaughtered they are made to face in the direction of the qiblah; deceased Muslims are placed in the grave with their face towards the qiblah. As a mark of respect Muslims should avoid, wherever possible, facing in the direction of the qiblah when relieving themselves.
The contribution of Islamic manners to the unity and solidarity of Muslims will be discussed in greater detail in subsequent pages.
Adherence to the manners of normative Islam will result in the eradication of many bid‘ah that have penetrated into Muslim life. Bid‘ah can be defined as an innovated belief or practice added to the original and authentic Islamic belief or practice.
It has been rejected by the Prophet saying, ‘He who innovates something in this matter of ours that is not of it will have it rejected.’9 And also, ‘…Beware of matters newly introduced (in religion), for every innovation is an error and every error will lead to Hell-fire.’
Anything added and introduced into Islam is considered as bid‘ah and is therefore rejected. The effect of innovations upon the various aspects of Islamic life is tremendously negative. They transform Islam from being a simple religion to one complicated and difficult to practise.. which will lead gradually to the abandonment of at least certain aspects of Muslim life. Bid’ah should not be confused with ijtihād which is the use of individual reasoning to draw conclusions from the Qur’ān or the Sunnah in conformity with the general principles of Islam, and exercised only by qualified scholars.
As mentioned above, many non-lslamic elements have been introduced into the behaviour and manners of Muslims. Here are some examples:
1. Certain religious occasions have been introduced into Islam, such as those of the Prophet’s birthday (Maulid), his Ascension (Mi‘rāj), and his Emigration (Hijrah).
2. Mentioning God’s name audibly and reading the Qur’ān aloud during a funeral procession.
3. Shaking hands following every congregational prayer.
4. The practice that after a certain number of days a bereaved family should prepare food and serve others. The correct Islamic conduct is for friends and relatives to prepare food for the bereaved since they are overwhelmed by sorrow.
5. The practice of plastering and ornamenting graves.
Psychological Aspect of Ādāb al-Islām
One of the striking characteristics of ādāb al-Islām is that psychological factors are fully taken into consideration. A few examples are:
1. Divorce is highly discouraged during the woman’s monthly period, as she is usually passing through a period of psychological tension.
2. Apart from the benefits of hygiene, cleanliness is prescribed in Islam because it refreshes and re-orientates body and mind. This is true in the case of performing ablution before prayer and washing the whole body after sexual intercourse and at the end of childbirth and menstruation. Those who have washed the body of a deceased person are recommended to bathe afterwards. The significance of this advice is that taking a bath in such situations helps to rid people of the psychological effects of those situations.
Medical and Hygienic Aspects of Ādāb al-Islām
Islam teaches Muslims to be always clean and pure. The daily manners of cleanliness and purity of body, place, clothes, etc., contribute enormously to the soundness of bodily health, as reliable medical evidence confirms, for cleanliness prevents the transmission of microbial diseases.
Wuḍū’ (the ablution) demanded of Muslims several times every day, as a necessary condition before prayer, requires washing those parts of the body that are generally exposed to dirt and dust.
Trimming the nails (ordered by Islam) is to prevent the accumulation of dirt and impurities on fingers which are in constant use for eating and drinking, as well as shaking hands.
Cleaning the axillary and pubic regions from growing hair is also prescribed by Islam. It helps to keep the sweat glands functioning well and prevents the multiplication of the bacteria that would otherwise affect those sweat glands.
Among the impurities from which a Muslim should keep away and purify himself, his clothes, etc. are faeces and urine. The urine contains urea and other nitrogenous compounds which disintegrate into ammonia through the effect of bacteria, giving rise to unpleasant odour. Pinworms (oxyuriasis), viral hepatitis, ascariasis and taeniasisi are among the diseases transmitted mainly through swallowing the infective stage present in faeces.
The fact that the Muslim should not overeat, but should rather stop before his stomach is full, has medical as well as social and moral benefits. The stomach contains stretch receptors; when distended it can give rise to pain and discomfort, as well as more disabling ailments.
When drinking, the Muslim is advised not to breathe into the vessel, for carbon dioxide is present in the exhaled air in a higher percentage than in the inhaled air, and high concentrations of carbon dioxide in the circulation negatively influence several physiological functions.
After drinking milk, the Muslim owes special thanks to God,10 for the benefit contained in it. Milk is considered adequate nourishment, a complete diet. It contains all the essential nutritional components: carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, in addition to many vitamins and minerals, mainly vitamin D, calcium, phosphate, deficiencies of which cause rickets in children and oesteomalacia in adults.
Slaughtering according to Islamic law provides meat that is clean of blood. Blood is known to be a good breeding ground for micro-organisms which can be the source of many diseases. Besides the health aspect, there is the cultural fact that many people feel disgusted, even ill, when they see meat with blood clotted or oozing amidst the meat fibres. Eating or drinking blood is forbidden in Islam.
Pork is also forbidden in Islam. Pigs are not selective about what they eat and can be fed on garbage, on food remnants. On this subject, Sakr has observed: ‘There are a good number of germs, parasites and bacteria that infest swine and live in its flesh which, when it is eaten, transmit diseases to man. Among these parasites are tapeworms, round worms, hook worms, faciolopsis buski, paragonimus, clonorchis senesis and erysipelothrix rhnsiphathiae.’11 He goes on: ‘In short, the pig, the supreme germ carrier, is the cause of many serious and fatal diseases, among them dysentery trichinosis, tape worm, round worm, hook worm, jaundice, pneumonia, suffocation, intestinal obstruction, acute pancreatitis, enlargement of the liver, diarrhea, emaciation, high fever, hindering the growth development in children, typhoid, lameness, heart trouble, abortion, sterility and sudden death.’12
Drinking alcohol is prohibited by Islam. Although it has some beneficial effects, it leads to addiction with all its moral and physiological problems. Further, ingestion of large amounts causes irritation of the stomach and peptic ulcer formation. It also affects the liver and causes its inflammation, cirrhosis and ultimately liver failure.
The Muslim is required not to restrain a sneeze, rather to thank God for this blessing. Sneezing results from irritation of the mucous membrane of the upper respiratory tract and it leads to the expulsion of the irritating substance. Prevention of sneezing will retain the irritant which may then cause inflammation where it lodges. Covering the mouth when sneezing is recommended in order to prevent the transmission to other persons of bacteria which may be present in the upper respiratory tract of some individuals.
Circumcision, required of every male Muslim, has been increasingly carried out in some parts of the Western world on medical grounds. The prepuce (a quite redundant piece of skin), if not cut off, can accumulate dirt and organisms which encourage the growth of bacteria. This may be one of the factors causing cancerous changes in the female genital tract.
Sexual intercourse during menses, which is completely forbidden in Islam, is harmful for two reasons:
1. The cervix is opened during menses, and intercourse will facilitate the entry of bacteria into the uterus and the fallopian tubes leading to inflammation and formation of adhesions which can cause sterility.
2. The negative psychological effect on the man when he discovers blood on his sexual organ. This may create a sensation of disgust such as to inhibit proper sexual relations with his wife.
The wisdom behind the prohibition of anal intercourse is that it is a painful process and it stimulates the defecation reflex. In addition, the male sexual organ may be soiled with some faeces which may contain pathogenic micro-organisms, in turn causing urinary tract infection in the male.
During the menstrual period the female sexual hormones are disturbed, leading to psychological upset, mainly in the form of nervous tension and depression, and this may explain the changes observed in the behaviour of women during the menstrual period. It partly explains the wisdom of the exemption of women from prayer and fasting.
The fact that, according to Islamic injunctions, the corpse must be buried without delay, shows proper understanding of the dangers of putrefaction: dangers much greater in hot climates where no cooling facilities are available.
The wisdom behind forbidding Muslims to own dogs, except watch and hunt dogs whose place must be outside the house, is clearly seen in the fact that the saliva of dogs contain rabies virus which can be transmitted to man by biting or by contact with the dog’s saliva through any cut in the skin. Echinococcus worm is found in the intestine of dogs; transmitted to man through food contaminated with dogs’ excreta, it can lead to the formation of cysts primarily in the liver and lungs.
Contribution of Ādāb al-Islām to the National Economy
The observance of ādāb al-Islām is also essential to a healthy economy; extravagance is forbidden, thriftiness encouraged, even required. Money plays an important role in the life of a nation, both in times of peace and of war. As a store of value it serves as a reserve of ready purchasing power and medium of exchange.13 Money power is essential for the nation as a whole. ‘The private individual is not absolutely free to spend any amount of money in any way he likes, as this leads to the destruction of this national power. Ādāb al-Islām give Muslims a religious motive for saving. In other words, it is the religious duty of every Muslim to abstain from extravagance, for Allah says in the Qur’ān: ‘Lo! the squanderers were ever brothers of the devil, and the devil was ever an ingrate to his Lord.’14
Here are different aspects of Islamic life which demonstrate the importance that Islam attaches to a healthy economy:
1. Moderation in eating and drinking is required. No food, however little, should be wasted. Forbidding wastefulness saves a large amount of the national wealth, and directs it to more useful investments.
2. Moderation in dress is required. Clothes should not become an end in themselves, and spending large sums of money on clothes should be avoided.
3. Furniture and other household items should be of moderate price. Silver or gold should not be used in domestic furniture or for utensils, or in any other items. Also silk or silk brocade should not be used in furniture or in men’s clothes.
4. Large sums of money should not be spent on building lavish houses. Even extravagance in mosque buildings is forbidden. Ornamentation in both cases should also be avoided.
5. In Islam, the ideal wedding is that which involves the least expense and avoids the unnecessary.
6. Funerals should also be inexpensive. Extravagance is forbidden. Coffins should not be used, unless to comply with special regulations or for health reasons.
7. Though generosity and hospitality toward guests is highly recommended in Islam, extravagance is forbidden.
8. Suspending work on Friday is not specifically prescribed in Islam except for about an hour to say the Friday prayers. Useful work should be continued, for to stop working for even a day may cause a loss to the national economy as a whole. Abandoning work on Friday is not encouraged, for the concept of the Sabbath does not exist in Islam. However, if Muslims have to have a day off, it should be Friday and not Saturday or Sunday.
9. Skill and thoroughness in every task entrusted to a Muslim is considered as his duty in Islam: according to the hadith, ‘Verily Allah has prescribed proficiency in all things.’15 A successful economy is obvious when industry and quality combine.
Marriage, the Family and Ādāb al-Islām
The family ‘provides the environment within which human values and morals develop and grow in the new generation; these values and morals cannot exist apart from the family unit. The family system and the relationship between the sexes determines the whole character of a society and whether it is backward or civilised.’16
Because marriage and family are so important, it is not surprising that so large a number of Our’anic verses and Prophetic Traditions are devoted to these two areas; these sources provide the basis and the details necessary for successful marriage and a morally sound, stable society.
1. A Muslim is recommended to marry at an early age. Marriage enlarges the circle of relatives by adding new ones through the marriage tie. Breast-feeding by foster nurses is permitted in Islam for it too enlarges the circle of the family with new-found relatives, called ‘relatives in breast-feeding’.
2. Muslims are encouraged to make marriage an easy task. According to the Islamic view, the most blessed marriage is that which involves the least burden upon the bride and bridegroom.
3. Celebrating marriage has been made commendatory in Islam, for marriage is a social event.
4. Although singing is generally forbidden in Islam, it is allowed on the occasion of marriage.
5. Holding a wedding feast is recommended and rejection of the invitation, when it is possible to accept, is not allowed on this very special occasion.
Islam is concerned that marriages should succeed. They cannot do so unless properly founded. The conditions and recommendations for success are:
1. Full mutual agreement by the man and the woman to marry one another.
2. Common ground and understanding between the man and the woman are obviously necessary. A common conception of life, way of living and common ways of overcoming disagreements is needed, and all these are provided by the Islamic faith and Sharī‘āh. Therefore, the ideal husband and wife are those who adhere most to Islam.
3. As preparatory steps towards marriage, Islam recommends that the man and the woman should have sufficient information about each other’s knowledge and practice of Islam and that they should also see each other.
4. There is no room for any intent on either side to have a temporary marriage. Islam recognizes only the intention to have a lasting marriage.
5. To fulfil all the conditions in any marriage contract is considered by Islam as among the best of deeds and the highest of moral virtues. According to the Prophet: ‘The most worthy conditions to be fulfilled by Muslims are those included in a marriage contract.’17
6. Husband and wife are advised, in case of disagreements, to try to solve their problems without the interference of anyone else.
7. The husband-wife relationship, if it is to succeed must be based upon mutual respect, understanding, co-operation, love and mercy.
A study of ādāb al-Islām shows the importance of marriage in Islam. The special relationship of husband and wife is recognized in ādāb al-Islām in the following ways:
1. Men are not allowed to wash the bodies of dead women, nor vice versa unless they are married to one another. In the case of a deceased wife the husband has the right to place her body in the grave.
2. Men and women are not allowed to see each other’s private parts-even though they are related to each other by blood as brother and sister, or mother and children -except in the case of husband and wife.
3. Women are forbidden to mourn a deceased relative including even a brother or father for a period exceeding three days; but a widow may mourn for her dead husband for a period of four months and ten days.
The parent-child relationship also has an important place in the manners of Islam. According to the Prophet of Islam, Paradise lies at the feet of mothers. If good manners toward others are a form of politeness, they are an obligatory religious duty in the case of parents. The conduct of children toward parents, discussed in Chapter 7, shows how heavy is the responsibility imposed upon children in this respect.
Strong kinship, affection, responsibility should not be confined to children and parents, but be extended to all relatives. There is, first, the moral responsibility to visit relatives from time to time, to ensure that they do not feel neglected and ignored. Second, there is the financial responsibility upon those more able to assist their needy relatives. If a Muslim dies in debt, his relatives are recommended to discharge the debt as soon as they can.
Allowing breast-feeding by a woman other than the mother, as mentioned earlier, enlarges the circle of relatives, and must be recognized and welcomed in mutual responsibility.
Family feeling and responsibility are so stressed in ādāb al-Islām because the family is the formative ground of the whole range of human sentiments, and therefore the best foundation for a healthy, stable society is a healthy, stable family life.
Norms of Sexual Behaviour in Islam
Islam recognizes sex as a portion of nature created by God, and nothing created by Him is evil or wrong if used and practised according to His commands.
There is no doubt that sex is necessary for the development of the individual’s personality, and for the society as a whole. Sexual development is intimately connected with feelings of personal worth and the assurance of being loved. Sexual deprivation endangers mental health, hinders good relationships and creates inefficiency in the society. But sex can be a destructive force if not controlled and channelled through marriage. It will then be a force working against the individual, the institution of marriage and family, and the society as a whole. In fact, ‘sex is capable of impelling individuals, reckless of the consequences while under its spell, towards behaviour which may imperil or disrupt the co-operative relationships upon which social life depends’.18
Sexual behaviour, therefore, must be controlled. This, however, seems difficult, and may indeed be impossible in any society without the assistance of other elements and factors that help the individual to keep sexual desires in check. Islam provides a solution to this problem through the observance of the following rules of conduct:
1. Marriage should be made easy for every member of the society and opportunities for early marriage enhanced.
2. All factors and conditions that incite the individual to indulge his sexual desires outside marriage should be blocked. Ādāb al-Islām are vital here:
(a) The body of the woman is of such a nature that it causes sexual excitement among men. Because this is so and not the other way about, Islam has forbidden all forms of nudity and exploitation of the female form. It prescribes a form of dress designed to cover the whole body except face and hands so as to protect the woman from the gaze of men and to protect men from exposure to her charms. There is no doubt that clothes convey inter-personal attitudes among which is that of sexuality.
(b) The separation of the sexes is necessary in Islam. This helps to ease sexual tension.
(c) A Muslim woman should not adorn her face with cosmetics nor use perfume outside the home. Such actions should be confined to her home and for her husband.
(d) Women are not allowed to bathe in a public bath used by men.
(e) When a woman speaks to a man other than her husband or relatives whom she is forbidden to marry (maḥram), her speech should not be inviting, but should remain objective and crisp.
(f) Showing decorous shyness is also required of men, both in dress and personal conduct. If, by chance, a Muslim’s gaze falls upon a woman, he should turn away his eyes: a second look is forbidden.
(g) Privacy in sexual relations is of the utmost importance in the Islamic view. Husband and wife are a mercy to each other, a garment and veil. It is forbidden for either husband or wife to discuss their sexual relations with others except in cases where help of a medical or professional nature is required.
All the rules given above and others concerning sexual conduct are intended to enable men and women to benefit from the blessings of sex within marriage, and to enable the society to benefit from the blessings of marriage and secure family relations.
Ādāb al-Islām and the Status of Women
When Europe was plunged into its Dark Ages and debated on the nature of woman’s soul on whether or not it was human, Islam had already declared men and women to be of the same origin and nature, equal before God and society, and promised like rewards or punishments for their good or evil deeds.
Islamic law is just and fair for both women and men. A woman in Islam has the right to hold property, and to manage her estates. She has the right to lease, or bequeath, or exploit property for her own benefit.19 Although a woman’s main domain is the house, she is not excluded from making financial transactions such as selling and buying, lending and borrowing, investments, etc. In the different schools of law, women are judged legally competent and fully entitled to carry out any of these transactions.
There is no difference between men and women concerning the penalties accorded under Islamic law whether for drinking alcohol, committing adultery, apostasy or murder.
Women in Islam enjoy the right to express their views freely, and to reject marriage proposals. The contemporary position of Muslim women in some parts of the Islamic world should not be adduced as evidence or argument against the concept and position of women in Islam. The following ādāb should remove any misunderstanding on this point: