Читать книгу Code Nation - Michael J. Halvorson - Страница 24

San Francisco was a major hub of computing activity in the 1970s, both before and after the so-called PC Revolution “PC Revolution.” In the years before the introduction of the first microcomputers, the Bay Area was replete with high tech startups, engineers, hippies, intellectuals, and students advocating for change. A fascinating representation of these overlapping mindsets can be found in the life and experiences of Felsenstein, Lee Lee Felsenstein (1945– ), a Bay Area antiwar protestor with a Berkeley Electrical Engineering degree who combined political activism with a unique vision for computing technology. Felsenstein was one of the original members of the Homebrew Computing mythologiescomputers for people Computer Club, the influential group of tinkerers and entrepreneurs who began meeting about electronics and computing in Menlo Park in 1975. The club’s first meeting allowed participants to preview one of the early MITS Altair microcomputers, the famous device based on the Intel 8080 microprocessor that was revealed to popular acclaim in the January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics. At first there were 32 members active in the club. After about 6 months, the group had expanded to about 100 regular attendees, with a newsletter distribution of almost 300.⁴¹

At Homebrew, Felsenstein met several people who would make major contributions to the development of PCs, including Gordon French, Fred Moore, Adam Osborn, Steve Wozniak, and Jobs, Steve Steve Jobs. Through these contacts, Felsenstein also came to know Brand, Stewart Stewart Brand, Nelson, Ted Ted Nelson, Bob Albrecht, Albrecht, Robert and other entrepreneurs and authors interested in print publishing.

Felsenstein took part in the Free Speech Movement Free Speech Movement in Berkeley in 1964–1965, the first massive act of civil disobedience on an American college campus in the 1960s. The events at Berkeley were influenced by New Left politics, and they were deeply connected to the Civil Rights Movement and Vietnam War protests. Many students took part in all three struggles and saw them as part of the same cause. Figure 2.8 shows one creative way that Felsenstein used his engineering skills to prepare for these events. In 1969, he designed a device he called a Decentralized bull horn (FR-3) “decentralized bull horn” (FR-3), which allowed protesters to communicate in crowded situations typical of student movements.⁴² (See Figure 2.8.) The bull horn was designed to have input and output connectors so that many individual devices could be driven by one lead device. Using these tools, a crowd of protesters armed with the bull horns could speak to each other when crowd noise became too loud for regular communication. It was an engineering solution designed to help people participate effectively in free speech rallies without the loudness and distortion of contemporary systems.

Felsenstein’s contributions to the movement usually brought together his love of technology with computing solutions that would help regular people. An early inspiration for his work was Stewart Brand’s Whole Earth Catalog Whole Earth Catalog, which connected Americans through print to a positive message on a massive scale. More theoretically, Felsenstein was also influenced by Ivan Illich’s book Tools for Conviviality (1973), which offered a conceptual rationale for using “limited” tools that might improve the lives of average citizens. Ivan Illich (1926–2002) was a Roman Computing mythologiescomputers for people Catholic priest and a staunch critic of mainstream, institutionalized education; he argued that a society functioned well when it made education broadly available and resisted the formation of elite groups that controlled and monetized the flow of information. Ideally, Illich wrote, learning would be hands-on, low-tech, and socially beneficial—what he defined as “convivial.”⁴³

Figure 2.8Photo of Lee Felsenstein with a decentralized bullhorn that he designed in 1969. (Courtesy of the Computer History Museum, used with permission of Lee Felsenstein)

Felsenstein was an electrical engineer by training and he had worked with computing systems at UC Berkeley and the Ampex Corporation, the later a maker of multitrack tape recording devices. Inspired by Illich and the Free Speech Movement, Felsenstein recognized in transistor technology the potential to offer citizens inexpensive access to communication tools and abundant sources of information. Like Stewart Brand and Ted Nelson, Felsenstein believed that appropriate tools could elevate the consciousness of average citizens and promote social change. Computing mythologiescomputers for people “We were looking for nonviolent weapons,” Felsenstein wrote, “and I suddenly realized that the greatest nonviolent weapon of all was information flow.”⁴⁴

In August 1973, Felsenstein and four others created The Community Memory project Community Memory project in Berkeley, California. The goal of this endeavor was to build a simple time-sharing computer system that could function as a hub for information and community organizing in the region. The first Community Memory system was established in Leopold’s Records in Berkeley, a popular hangout for students, musicians, poets, and counterculture types of all ages. (For more about this organization and its mission, see Chapter 7.)

The Community Memory information hub consisted of a teleprinter and a keyboard, surrounded by a simple cardboard case to protect the system and reduce the shrill noise that emitted from the teleprinter. The device was connected via a 110-baud link to a reconditioned Scientific Data Systems 940 time-sharing computer in San Francisco. By using the teleprinter and simple commands, novice users could compose short messages, associate them with keywords, and post them to the system. Users could also search for messages or general topics of interest using keywords. There were helpful signs for users explaining how to operate the device, and typically a Community Memory volunteer was nearby to offer help and encouragement. The device functioned as a community bulletin board, where locals could get information about music, art, food, carpooling, protesting, and other activities. Users were not required to register or share their names to use the system. For many Berkeley residents, it was their first opportunity to see or use a computer.

As Community Memory gained momentum, Felsenstein developed a related project that he designed in the fall of 1974, the Tom Swift Terminal. Steven Levy introduced Felsenstein’s project to the general public in his book Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution.⁴⁵ For historians interested in the plan, the best source is Felsenstein’s short vision document, which provides a high-level explanation of the circuitry and the components required to build the system.⁴⁶ I am fascinated with Felsenstein’s hand-written prototype, because I see it as a forerunner of the learn-to-program movement, with its socially-based call to action and step-by-step instructions that taught computational thinking. Through the specification, Felsenstein and his colleagues argued for the democratization of computers; they made an appeal for ordinary citizens to program and use computers. It was a fascinating echo of the emphasis that Kemeny, John John Kemeny and Kurtz, Thomas Thomas Kurtz had put on Computing mythologiescomputers for people bringing “computing to the people” during the development of time-sharing BASIC at Dartmouth College in 1963–1964.⁴⁷

The Tom Swift Terminal Tom Swift Terminal was designed to be sturdier and easier to use than the Community Memory system, which was essentially a cardboard prototype showing how a community-centered technology might develop. The “Tom Swift” was named to honor America’s “everyman” from literature who was fond of tinkering and experimenting far from the centers of corporate and government power. The terminal consisted of a box containing a bus, a power supply, and connections for printed circuit boards. When the owner hooked up a keyboard, a modem, and a television set, he or she had their very own functioning computer. (The schematic also allowed for a dialup modem connection that could connect to a time-sharing system.) After the connection was made, interactive “personal computing” could be accomplished through the remote computer’s operating system and software. The user would experience the terminal session as lines scrolling on their home television set.

Lee Felsenstein wrote up the following goals for the system:

(a)to provide an inexpensive computer terminal useable in public-access information systems which is;

1.capable of using the home TV set as a character display. With hard copy as an add-on option.

2.easily useable by untrained people in a non-professional environment.

3.readily expandable by field modifications to higher levels of “intelligence” and off-line readability.

In an advertisement to publicize the concept, Felsenstein offered interested parties a 25-page booklet describing the proposed device for 50 cents. The advertisement made specific reference to Illich’s Tools for Conviviality, describing a new approach to computing that would be non-industrial, fun, and playful. People would learn, understand, and repair this tool with little formal training, just like the tools humans used before the advent of industrial systems.⁴⁸