Читать книгу Essays - Michel de Montaigne - Страница 23
ОглавлениеGUIDE TO THE CHAPTERS
BOOK I
On Idleness
When Montaigne retired from public life to his famous tower study on his estate, it did not turn out as he expected. Time on his hands did not lead to clarity of thought; rather, it made him more self-obsessed, melancholic, and prone to undisciplined imaginings.
On Liars
To lie well you need a good memory, which Montaigne distinctly lacks. In fact, his poor memory was a blessing in that he quickly forgot slights and could enjoy books he had read many times before. As humans are a species of word and speech, lying is the greatest vice, Montaigne argues.
That the Way We See Good and Evil Depends Upon the Opinion We Have of Them
Events are not good or bad in their own right, but our experience depends on how we perceive them. Montaigne agrees in principle, but chronic pain from his kidney stones and colic make it hard to live by these principles.
To Study Philosophy Is to Learn How To Die
A key part of Stoic philosophy was the premeditation or practicing of death so that it would not take us unawares. One should have perfect equanimity in the face of death or misfortune. Montaigne considers the vanity of humans who busy themselves and take on great projects as if they would live forever.
On the Power of Imagination
Mental impressions, ideas, thoughts, and fears have a hold on us, and it is often only by “sorcery” or tricks that we can loosen their power. Montaigne's example is sexual performance; he reveals old wedding-night customs designed to make things go well. Other examples of the power of thought and images include a woman who, having birthed a hairy child, blamed it on having a portrait of John the Baptist above her bed. Montaigne discounts history as being largely the work of the imagination; he is better at observing the present.
On Custom, and That We Should Not Easily Change an Established Law
The discovery of new worlds and peoples in Montaigne's time, plus the constant turmoil of political events in France and Europe, made him err on the side of custom or “rules of thumb”. What has been around for a long time has survived for good reason. “Novelty” is usually just some individual's idea of how things could change, often with negative social results.
On the Education of Children
In a chapter dedicated to his friend Diane de Foix (at the time, pregnant) Montaigne is full of quite modern ideas about how to bring up children, including teaching by inspiration rather than strong discipline. By analogy, kings and rulers should also act like a responsible and loving parent, instilling good values among their subjects.
On Friendship
“Friendship” here for Montaigne means bonds established in all kinds of relationships that are about the meeting of two souls (rather than just bodies). His model here is his deep friendship with Etienne de la Boétie, who had been accused of seditionary writings. Their loyalty to each other over time is analogous to a citizen who is loyal to the state.
On Moderation
Whatever pleasures humans find, they take things to excess, thereby making pleasure a vice. Even the study of philosophy, if engaged in too much, will make a person have contempt for religion and accepted laws and customs. “Everything in moderation”, and having respect for others, are a good rule for life.
On Cannibals
Montaigne is unusually open-minded for his time on the matter of “natives”. We only think them barbarous because they are so different to us in dress, beliefs, and customs. Western civilization has its own array of enterprises and customs which would look cruel and nonsensical to outsiders. Amid our hubris, we would do well to remember that the greatest “art” in the universe is nature itself.
On Solitude
Wherever we go, we take ourselves along. Montaigne sought freedom of mind and tranquility in his tower study, but found he was a prisoner of wandering, unhelpful thoughts. We do not need physical solitude as monks and nuns seek, but to be in the world and yet live with some level of detachment.
BOOK II
On the Inconstancy of Our Actions
Humans are full of contradictions, and mostly drift along with the flow of life without having a real plan. Our moods and affections change with the weather, and there's as much difference within us, as between individuals. Given that we allow chance to play such a part in our lives, it's no wonder that chance will dominate and take us places we'd rather not go.
Use Makes Perfect
Sometimes translated as “On Practice”, the practice in question is not mastering of a skill but preparing for death. Montaigne, like most people, feared death. That was until he was thrown off his horse in an accident and was concussed; from that moment he had more equanimity. Relating the incident leads to a discussion of how much one should talk about oneself. Not too much, he thinks, but never talking of oneself also goes against human nature.
On Books
Montaigne reveals his reading habits, noting that he will only keep reading a book he really enjoys; he feels the ancient books are more solid than recent ones; and he follows Horace's division of books into those that merely delight, and those that delight and are useful (particularly ones that help him be a better person). Among the poets, he ranks Virgil highest. Among the useful writers, he likes Plutarch and Seneca; Cicero is too wordy. Among historians, he finds most weak because they put narrative over fact.
On Cruelty
The chapter begins by discussing virtue. Montaigne does not see himself as particularly virtuous. If he has good qualities, most were developed through education and good family – neither of which were his creation. He is not free of vice by any means, but one vice he would never engage in is cruelty. If someone is put to death, let it be quick. Torture for public enjoyment is disgusting. We should be kind to animals because they have feelings.
On Giving the Lie
Montaigne's own age, in fact every age in history including the classical world, is one of lies and dissimulation. He despises lying for the bad effects it carries through time. It is both cowardly towards other people, and disrespects God. His Essays are, if nothing else, an attempt to convey the truth – even if messy or awkward, or lacking direction or resolution.
On a Monstrous Child
Montaigne relates seeing two curiosities: male conjoined twins; and a man born with no genitals who nevertheless was aroused by women. Though they may seem “monsters”, in God's eyes they cannot be, because as God made everything in nature, it all must be perfect. The universe has a great multitude of life, which we can wonder at.
On Three Good Women
A further meditation on love and marriage. Montaigne takes three examples from antiquity of devotion of wives to their husbands. He also salutes the great suicide of Seneca, who stayed true to his Stoic principles, with equanimity shown until the end.
BOOK III
On Profit and Honesty
Sometimes, there appears to be a conflict between personal virtue and matters of politics or business. Cicero wrote that what is right and what is expedient can never be separate things, and Montaigne largely agrees. In a time of war (as he was), one has to take sides, but in all personal and public dealings one should act with justice and sympathy, never becoming so inflamed that one acts with vengeance or cruelty.
On Repentance
Montaigne's subject here is the question of whether one has acted honorably, given the facts and circumstances at the time of decision. He has largely trusted his own judgment on things, and therefore is fully responsible for this life. It is less worrisome anyway to appreciate that things turned out as they meant to, and that one's decisions matter little in the scheme of things. There is little that can agitate Montaigne, and his relative lack of ambition or intensity has worked well for him. If you are moderate, you will have peace.
On Some Verses of Virgil
The chapter title disguises the real subject: human sexuality. Montaigne begins by noting he is too old to engage in much sex now, but he enjoys himself with memories. He admits his marriage was arranged but respects the institution of marriage and has kept to his vows. Sex is so strong an impulse that the world revolves around it. Women have desires as strong as men, and he looks wryly on women who claim to have their mind only on higher things. It is only education and custom that make women and men seem so different.
On Coaches
Horse-drawn coaches were still a symbol of luxury in Montaigne's time, so he uses them as the means to criticize pomp and ostentation. When rulers have grand transports and caravans, it is a sign that they lack confidence in their power and judgment and make up for it with display. They spend on lavish festivals to make the people feel good about them, when the money would be better spent on ports, bridges, schools, hospitals. He contrasts this with the apparent nobility of the New World rulers, admiring the civilization they built before the Spanish conquest.
On the Art of Conversation
Montaigne loves conversation so much, that he would rather lose his sight than his speech or hearing. In contrast to the solitariness of reading, conversation builds our character and skills. He welcomes strange or shocking views, because from every chat you learn something and it gets you closer to truth. He prefers being contradicted to being praised, and loves light-hearted banter. Speaking reveals who you are. Many a ruler would have preserved the sense of awe around them by keeping silent.
On Vanity
Montaigne admits that the greatest vanity is writing about vanity. Yet here he is, with his self-indulgent scribblings. Each person contributes in some way to the decline of their era. Some through their vain actions foster more injustice or cruelty than there was before. Others (like he himself) simply add more silliness or laziness. He should be content with running his estate, like his father was, but he fancies himself as a man of state, travelling and meeting important people. The Delphic maxim is Know yourself, but when he has examined himself, all he has found is emptiness and foolishness.
On Experience
Montaigne's meditation on his life-long search for wisdom, paradoxically, comes down to being a point of consciousness within a body. For this reason he goes into some details on his diet, sleeping habits, illnesses, etc. Though he has done nothing of great distinction, he has had thousands of experiences – and so feels as qualified to comment on life as anyone. Using the analogy of his kidney disease, and his aversion to medicine, he argues that life is to be faced up to, not avoided. In doing so we might find some (very modest) self-knowledge or wisdom.
