Читать книгу Materials for Biomedical Engineering - Mohamed N. Rahaman - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Examples of biomaterials in use for medical and dental applicatio...Figure 1.2 Schematic showing the major components of the biomaterials field....Figure 1.3 Schematic of the classes of materials used as biomaterials, along...Figure 1.4 Stages in the evolution of the intravascular stent, used as an ex...Figure 1.5 Strength versus elastic modulus for the three major classes of sy...Figure 1.6 Illustration of (a) the human hip joint and (b) an artificial hip...Figure 1.7 Image showing the components of an artificial implant used for to...Figure 1.8 Various combinations of materials currently used in implants for ...Figure 1.9 Illustrative summary of the evolution of biomaterials classified ...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of the formation of (a) ionic bond, (b) co...Figure 2.2 Schematic illustration of covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecu...Figure 2.3 Formation of an interatomic bond viewed in terms of (a) interatom...Figure 2.4 Relationship between interatomic force versus displacement curve ...Figure 2.5 Illustration of (a) nonpolar bond in hydrogen molecule (H₂) and (...Figure 2.6 Schematic illustration of the formation of four sp³ orbitals in (...Figure 2.7 Schematic comparison of the directionality of sp, sp², and sp³ hy...Figure 2.8 Schematic illustration of covalent bonding in methane, ammonia, a...Figure 2.9 Illustration of the formation and geometry of single, double, and...Figure 2.10 Illustration of covalent bonds linking carbon atoms (C) in the c...Figure 2.11 Schematic comparison of the attractive interactions in the ionic...Figure 2.12 Illustration of the interactions in van der Waals bonding: (a) d...Figure 2.13 Illustration of (a) polarity of each covalent bond in the trichl...Figure 2.14 Schematic illustration of hydrogen bonds between water molecules...Figure 2.15 Illustration of the arrangement of water (H₂O) molecules in ice ...Figure 2.16 Schematic comparison of (a) van der Waals bonding between nonpol...Figure 2.17 Side groups in 20 naturally occurring α‐amino acids which can be...Figure 2.18 Illustration of (a) condensation reaction between two amino acid...Figure 2.19 Schematic illustration of the stereochemistry of the amide bond....Figure 2.20 Illustration of (a) α‐helix structure generated by intrachain hy...Figure 2.21 Illustration of β‐sheet structure generated by layering of polyp...Figure 2.22 Schematic illustration in two dimensions of the overall three‐di...Figure 2.23 Illustration of the main types of interactions between side grou...Figure 2.24 Illustration of chain folding of protein to form a globular thre...Figure 2.25 (a) Illustration of single α‐chain composed of the amino acid se...Figure 2.26 Schematic illustration of the structure of the modified amino ac...Figure 2.27 Illustrative example of quaternary structure of a protein compos...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Packing of atoms to give a simple cubic structure. (a) Single “sq...Figure 3.2 (a) Packing of “square” layers of atoms in ABAB pattern to give a...Figure 3.3 (a) Single “triangular” layer of atoms showing interstitial posit...Figure 3.4 (a) Packing of triangular layers of atoms in ABAB pattern to give...Figure 3.5 Geometry and parameters of a unit cell.Figure 3.6 The seven crystal systems and their parameters.Figure 3.7 The 14 Bravais lattices.Figure 3.8 Arrangement of sodium ions (Na⁺) and chlorine ions (Cl⁻) in...Figure 3.9 Illustration of (a) ordered arrangement of SiO₄ tetrahedra in cry...Figure 3.10 (a) Arrangement of atoms in a phosphate (PO₄)³⁻ ion; (b) a...Figure 3.11 Schematic representation of the structure of a sodium silicate g...Figure 3.12 Tetrahedral arrangement of covalent bonded carbon atoms in diamo...Figure 3.13 (a) Basic building block of graphite composed of a planar array ...Figure 3.14 Arrangement of carbon atoms in (a) graphene, (b) single‐walled c...Figure 3.15 Schematic representation of (a) random arrangement of macromolec...Figure 3.16 Schematic representation of the types of point defects in a crys...Figure 3.17 Major substituting ions and approximated formula of hydroxyapati...Figure 3.18 Schematic representation of a dislocation in a crystal and the d...Figure 3.19 Schematic representation of part of a perfect crystal (a) and th...Figure 3.20 Schematic representation of the movement of an edge dislocation ...Figure 3.21 Schematic representation of slip in a metal that is subjected to...Figure 3.22 Illustration of (a) the boundary region between two grains and (...Figure 3.23 Examples of microstructures of dense biomaterials. (a) Al₂O₃ sho...Figure 3.24 Examples of microstructures of porous biomaterials. (a) Bioactiv...Figure 3.25 Diagram illustrating the specification of lattice planes in a cr...Figure 3.26 Diagram illustrating the specification of lattice directions in ...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Different loading modes in mechanical testing of materials: (a) t...Figure 4.2 Schematic stress–strain curve to illustrate the distinction betwe...Figure 4.3 Schematic diagrams to illustrate two types of plastic deformation...Figure 4.4 Linear viscoelastic behavior of polymers. (a) In creep, a constan...Figure 4.5 Two alternative versions of the Zener model, also called the stan...Figure 4.6 Schematic stress–strain curves to illustrate the characteristic r...Figure 4.7 Schematic stress–strain curves to illustrate the characteristic r...Figure 4.8 Local stress σ_l as a function of distance x from the tip ...Figure 4.9 Geometrical model used in the Griffith theory of brittle fracture...Figure 4.10 Area under the stress–strain curve used as measure of the relati...Figure 4.11 Schematic representation of the fracture surface of a ductile me...Figure 4.12 Geometry of hardness test using a Vickers indenter consisting of...Figure 4.13 Data for the Young’s modulus as a function of porosity for a tit...Figure 4.14 The influence of grain size on the yield strength of a 70Cu–30Zn...Figure 4.15 Weibull plots for porous bioactive glass (BG) specimens in compr...Figure 4.16 Bar chart showing the range of electrical conductivity for diffe...Figure 4.17 Simplified explanation of the electrical conductivity of conduct...Figure 4.18 Schematic diagram illustrating the two contributions to the magn...Figure 4.19 Schematic illustration of magnetic domains in a ferromagnetic ma...Figure 4.20 (a) Part of Fe₃O₄ crystal structure showing the tetrahedral a si...Figure 4.21 Magnetization curve for a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic materia...Figure 4.22 (a) Vibration of a sphere connected by springs. (b) The atomic v...Figure 4.23 Chart showing the thermal conductivity values for a variety of m...Figure 4.24 Reflection, transmission, and absorption of a light beam inciden...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Various types of surface characteristics: (a) rough or smooth; (b...Figure 5.2 Illustration of lower coordination and disrupted bonding of outer...Figure 5.3 Contributions to the Gibbs free energy change due to change in ar...Figure 5.4 Wetting behavior between a liquid and a solid showing (a) good we...Figure 5.5 Zisman plot for polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) using various liqu...Figure 5.6 Homogeneous wetting (a) and heterogeneous wetting (b) of a rough ...Figure 5.7 Images showing contact angle of a deionized water drop on (a) mac...Figure 5.8 Illustration of the formation of an oxide surface layer on a clea...Figure 5.9 A model for reorientation of polymer surface functional groups du...Figure 5.10 Interaction of incident beam (electrons or X‐rays) with a solid,...Figure 5.11 XPS survey spectrum for an autoclaved titanium dental implant....Figure 5.12 XPS high‐resolution spectrum of the Ti 2p peak for a machined ti...Figure 5.13 Production of surface charge on a hydroxylated metal oxide surfa...Figure 5.14 Production of negative or positive surface charge on surface com...Figure 5.15 Production of surface charge on a surface devoid of functional g...Figure 5.16 Illustration of the electrostatic charge distribution surroundin...Figure 5.17 Zeta potential as a function of pH, as measured by the streaming...Figure 5.18 Examples of surface topography accidentally introduced (a, b) or...Figure 5.19 Schematic illustrating surface roughness parameters that can hav...Figure 5.20 Emissions produced by the interaction of an electron beam with a...Figure 5.21 EDS spectrum of a borosilicate glass examined in the SEM, showin...Figure 5.22 Schematic illustrating (a) the main components of the AFM techni...Figure 5.23 Schematic curve of force versus separation between the tip and s...Figure 5.24 Schematic illustrating the principle of optical interferometry....Figure 5.25 Topography of as‐fabricated silicon nitride obtained by (a) SEM,...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Polymorphic transformation in iron, titanium, and cobalt.Figure 6.2 Free energy as a function of radius of nucleus. ΔG* is the free e...Figure 6.3 Activation energy q required for an atom to diffuse from A to B....Figure 6.4 Illustration of the variation of the transformation rate with tem...Figure 6.5 (a) Diffusive transformation and (b) displacive transformation in...Figure 6.6 Time‐temperature‐transformation diagram for the FCC to BCC transf...Figure 6.7 Types of phases that can be present in a metal composed of two ph...Figure 6.8 The iron‐rich portion of the iron‐carbon phase diagram.Figure 6.9 Common production methods for metals: (a) forging, (b) rolling, (...Figure 6.10 Illustration of growth of dendritic grains during casting of a m...Figure 6.11 Obstruction of dislocation motion by precipitates. Dislocation c...Figure 6.12 Yield strength and elongation to failure (ductility) as a functi...Figure 6.13 Motion of a dislocation as it encounters a grain boundary. The b...Figure 6.14 Sketch illustrating how the microstructure of a metal is changed...Figure 6.15 Influence of alloying elements on the phase diagram of titanium ...Figure 6.16 Schematic phase diagram for Ti6Al4V that shows the martensite st...Figure 6.17 Images of Ti6Al4V microstructure produced under different therma...Figure 6.18 Portion of the cobalt–chromium phase diagram.Figure 6.19 Schematic illustration of the shape memory and superelastic effe...Figure 6.20 Illustration of stress versus strain response of superelastic an...Figure 6.21 Microstructure of porous tantalum formed by a CVD process.Figure 6.22 (a) Schematic of the surface modification of Zr alloy to produce...Figure 6.23 Optical images of Levai‐Laxzko stained sections of rat femurs im...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Types of materials in the overall field of ceramics.Figure 7.2 Microstructural flaws that may be present in ceramics.Figure 7.3 (a) Major processing steps in the production of ceramics by the s...Figure 7.4 High zirconia portion of the zirconia–yttria phase diagram. The s...Figure 7.5 Scanning electron microscope images showing typical microstructur...Figure 7.6 Illustration of transformation toughening mechanism in tetragonal...Figure 7.7 Illustration of crack deflection mechanism in silicon nitride (SiFigure 7.8 Solubility isotherms of various calcium phosphate compounds as a ...Figure 7.9 Variation of ionic concentrations in triprotic equilibrium for ph...Figure 7.10 Hydroxyapatite discs of varying porosity and pore size produced ...Figure 7.11 (a) Major steps in the setting (hardening) of calcium phosphate ...Figure 7.12 Comparison of typical calcium phosphate cement microstructure wi...Figure 7.13 Specific volume (volume per unit mass) as a function of temperat...Figure 7.14 Viscosity of three silicate glasses as a function of temperature...Figure 7.15 (a) Microspheres of Y₂O₃–Al₂O₃–SiO₂ glass (25–40 μm) used in rad...Figure 7.16 Illustration of distinctive characteristics of bioactive glasses...Figure 7.17 (a) Optical micrograph of a 45S5 bioactive glass implant (BG) bo...Figure 7.18 Effect of composition on (a) reactivity of bioactive glasses as ...Figure 7.19 Effect of microstructure on the mechanical response of porous bi...Figure 7.20 Bioactive borate glass (13–93B3) composed of microfibers used in...Figure 7.21 Concentration of copper (Cu²⁺) ions released from copper‐doped b...Figure 7.22 Illustration of the production of a glass‐ceramic by controlled ...Figure 7.23 Typical processing cycle for the production of glass‐ceramics.Figure 7.24 Illustration of relative nucleation and crystallization rates as...Figure 7.25 Formation of crystalline phases in lithium disilicate glass‐cera...Figure 7.26 Illustration of the mechanism of phase formation in lithium disi...Figure 7.27 SEM images showing the difference in microstructure between lith...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Types of synthetic polymers relevant to biomaterials.Figure 8.2 Arrangement of monomer units in (a) random copolymer, (b) alterna...Figure 8.3 Arrangement of monomer units in polymers composed of (a) linear c...Figure 8.4 Stereoregularity of molecules in a vinyl polymer such as polyprop...Figure 8.5 (a) Illustration of polymer composed of molecules having many dif...Figure 8.6 Illustration of the conformation of a molecular chain in a molten...Figure 8.7 Schematic plot of the specific volume of a polymer as a function ...Figure 8.8 Effect of chain backbone composition on the glass transition temp...Figure 8.9 Effect of side chains on the glass transition temperature T_g. (a...Figure 8.10 Illustration of stages in nucleation and crystal growth in polym...Figure 8.11 Illustration of the structure of a spherulite growing within a m...Figure 8.12 Molecular orientation in amorphous polymers. Extending an amorph...Figure 8.13 Stages of molecular orientation in semicrystalline polymers. Ext...Figure 8.14 (a) Representation of the synthesis of polymethyl methacrylate (...Figure 8.15 Representation of the synthesis of polyethylene terephthalate (P...Figure 8.16 Illustration of the shear modulus as a function of temperature f...Figure 8.17 Chemical structures of three fluorinated hydrocarbon polymers: p...Figure 8.18 Scanning electron microscope image of the microstructure of a po...Figure 8.19 Chemical structure of polyether ether ketone (PEEK).Figure 8.20 Chemical structures of polycarbonate (PC), polyether sulfone (PE...Figure 8.21 (a) Representation of the synthesis of nylon 6.6 by a condensati...Figure 8.22 Chemical structure of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS).Figure 8.23 Illustration of the synthesis of a polyurethane alternating copo...Figure 8.24 Synthesis of a polyurethane segmental block copolymer by a two‐s...Figure 8.25 Chemical structures of common diisocyanates, polyols, and chain ...Figure 8.26 Schematic representation of the effect of hard segment content (...Figure 8.27 Chemical structures of common water‐soluble polymers. (a) Polyvi...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Schematic illustration of the cleavage of a hydrolytically unstab...Figure 9.2 Schematic illustration of (a) surface erosion, (b) bulk erosion, ...Figure 9.3 Chemical structure and degradation rate constants for various deg...Figure 9.4 Simplified illustration of (a) acid‐catalyzed and (b) base‐cataly...Figure 9.5 Effect of pH on degradation (molecular weight M relative to initi...Figure 9.6 Effect of molecular weight on (a) degradation (molecular weight MFigure 9.7 Illustration of percolation in a material composed of spherical p...Figure 9.8 Critical thickness L_c that a polymer has to exceed in order to un...Figure 9.9 Chemical structure of the most widely used poly(α‐hydroxy esters)...Figure 9.10 Chemical structure of D‐lactic acid and L‐lactic acid.Figure 9.11 Crystallinity of polylactic‐co‐glycolic acid (PLGA), synthesized...Figure 9.12 Water uptake of polylactic‐co‐glycolic acid (PLGA), synthesized ...Figure 9.13 Approximate half‐life t_1/2 (time taken for the molecular weight...Figure 9.14 Chemical structures of polycaprolactone (PCL) and its monomeric ...Figure 9.15 Chemical structures of a polyanhydride synthesized from 1,3‐bis(...Figure 9.16 Erosion kinetics (mass eroded relative to the initial mass) for ...Figure 9.17 Percent crystallinity of copolymer P(CCP‐SA) composed of varying...Figure 9.18 Chemical structures of a poly(ortho ester) under investigation f...Figure 9.19 Chemical structure of polydioxanone.Figure 9.20 Chemical structures of the polyhydroxyalkanoates poly‐3‐hydroxyb...Figure 9.21 Chemical structures of poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and its mo...Figure 9.22 Poly(cyclohexane‐1,4‐diyl acetone dimethyl ketal) (PCADK) and ac...Figure 9.23 (a) Scanning electron microscope image of poly(cyclohexane‐1,4‐d...Figure 9.24 Synthesis of poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) from glycerol and seb...Figure 9.25 Comparison of the changes in mass, compressive strength, and wat...Figure 9.26 Chemical structure of poly(1,3‐trimethylene carbonate).Figure 9.27 Chemical structure of tyrosine‐derived polycarbonate.

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Illustration of the hierarchical structure of collagen (type I)....Figure 10.2 Scanning electron microscope images of collagen sponge microstru...Figure 10.3 Reaction of glutaraldehyde with the free amino groups of lysine ...Figure 10.4 Denaturation temperature and primary amine group content for der...Figure 10.5 Reaction of (a) hexamethylene diisocyanate with the free amine g...Figure 10.6 Schematic of different collagen structures and their denaturatio...Figure 10.7 Illustration of the mechanical response of collagenous tissues i...Figure 10.8 Typical tensile stress versus strain curves of collagen structur...Figure 10.9 Schematic showing method for extracting gelatin from collagenous...Figure 10.10 Illustration of the hierarchical structure of silkworm silk fib...Figure 10.11 Tensile stress versus tensile strain curves for silkworm (Bombi...Figure 10.12 Illustration of elastin in (a) relaxed and (b) stretched states...Figure 10.13 Illustration of major steps in the formation of fibrin.Figure 10.14 Scanning electron microscope image of the structure of fibrin f...Figure 10.15 Two common ways to depict the chemical structure of a monosacch...Figure 10.16 Chemical structure of the repeating unit in hyaluronic acid, co...Figure 10.17 Illustration of the structure of chemically modified hyaluronic...Figure 10.18 Chemical structure of the repeating unit in chondroitin sulfate...Figure 10.19 Representative alginate structure showing (a) chain conformatio...Figure 10.20 Illustration of the formation of a three‐dimensional network of...Figure 10.21 Illustration of a possible reaction scheme for the covalent bon...Figure 10.22 Chemical structure of the repeating unit in (a) chitin, (b) chi...Figure 10.23 Illustration of the chemical modification of chitosan. (a) Ioni...Figure 10.24 Chemical structure of the repeating unit in agarose.Figure 10.25 Chemical structure of α‐glucose and β‐glucose.Figure 10.26 Chemical structure of cellulose.Figure 10.27 Hierarchical structure of cellulose fiber.Figure 10.28 Illustration of the hierarchical structure of bacterial cellulo...Figure 10.29 Scanning electron microscope image of the surface of a bacteria...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Illustration of a hydrogel in a dehydrated state and in a hydrat...Figure 11.2 Example of the chemical structure of a monomer (hydroxyethyl met...Figure 11.3 Schematic of chemical reaction between polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) c...Figure 11.4 Illustration of alginate hydrogels created by ionic crosslinking...Figure 11.5 Illustration of hydrogen bonded structure between polyacrylic ac...Figure 11.6 (a) Chemical structure of polymers (referred to as Pluronics) co...Figure 11.7 Illustration of the gelling mechanism upon warming a solution of...Figure 11.8 Illustration of gelling in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by a crystall...Figure 11.9 Illustration of the mesh size ξ and molecular weight betw...Figure 11.10 Illustration of the contributions to the overall Gibbs free ene...Figure 11.11 Dependence of the molecular weight between crosslinks and the...Figure 11.12 (a) Illustration of solute (drug) release through a hydrogel; (...Figure 11.13 Illustration of types of structural features that may be presen...Figure 11.14 Degree of ionization of (a) the (C=O)OH group in polyacrylic ac...Figure 11.15 Illustration of the mechanism of swelling for a polyelectrolyte...Figure 11.16 Theoretical predictions for the equilibrium swelling Q as a fun...Figure 11.17 Schematic illustration of the trend in the kinetics of swelling...Figure 11.18 Schematic illustration of typical phase diagrams for polymers s...Figure 11.19 Chemical structures of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyethyle...Figure 11.20 N‐Hydroxysuccinimidyl‐activated esters used to couple the N‐ter...Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the creation of a degradable PEG‐base...Figure 11.22 Measured erosion (mass m relative to initial mass m_o) as a func...Figure 11.23 (a) Chemical structure of the monomer unit in N‐alkyl‐substitut...Figure 11.24 (a) Chemical structure of lightly crosslinked hydrogels compose...Figure 11.25 Chemical structures of chitosan and disodium glycerol phosphate...Figure 11.26 Elastic modulus as a function of temperature for chitosan–glyce...Figure 11.27 Illustration of drug release from polyelectrolyte hydrogels by ...Figure 11.28 Illustration of a method for encapsulating cells in a polyethyl...Figure 11.29 Illustration of a common approach in which hydrogels are used a...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Idealized illustrations of common types of composites: (a) parti...Figure 12.2 Illustration of fiber‐reinforced composite loaded in the directi...Figure 12.3 Young's modulus of fiber‐reinforced composite in the directions ...Figure 12.4 Predictions for the effect of particle size on the Young's modul...Figure 12.5 Effect of average particle size on the tensile yield strength of...Figure 12.6 Tensile strength of particulate composites composed of nylon 6 r...Figure 12.7 Tensile yield stress and Young's modulus as a function of partic...Figure 12.8 (a) Effect of particle content on the Young's modulus and strain...Figure 12.9 Scanning electron microscope images of porous composites compose...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Examples of various types of surface modification.Figure 13.2 Schematic of the main components of a plasma treatment system.Figure 13.3 (a) Schematic of the main components of a reactor for chemical v...Figure 13.4 Film deposition rate plotted as function of the ratio of the par...Figure 13.5 Schematic of the main components of a physical vapor deposition ...Figure 13.6 Schematic of the equipment and process steps in the deposition o...Figure 13.7 Illustration of method of grafting a polymer coating to the surf...Figure 13.8 Examples of specific chemical reactions to modify the surface of...Figure 13.9 Chemical structure of silanes and examples of reacting group X a...Figure 13.10 (a) Illustration of the reaction between a silane molecule and ...Figure 13.11 Chemical structure of stearic acid and an illustration of a bil...Figure 13.12 (a) Monolayer of stearic acid molecules on the surface of a wat...Figure 13.13 Deposition of Langmuir–Blodgett multilayer film on one side of ...Figure 13.14 General characteristics of short‐chain molecules and substrate ...Figure 13.15 (a) Schematic of reaction of a thiol (S–H) terminated chain wit...Figure 13.16 Illustration of various structures of self‐assembled monolayers...Figure 13.17 (a) Schematic of the layer‐by‐layer (LbL) film deposition proce...Figure 13.18 (a) Illustration of repeating tetralayer on the surface of a ma...Figure 13.19 Reaction scheme for immobilization of growth factor (GF) contai...Figure 13.20 Reaction scheme for immobilizing a growth factor (GF) containin...Figure 13.21 Examples of methods for immobilizing heparin molecules at the s...Figure 13.22 Illustration of end‐point covalent bonding of aldehyde‐terminat...Figure 13.23 Illustration of a drug delivery system composed of a fibrin mat...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Schematic of a metal in contact with a solution of its ions.Figure 14.2 Potential difference between a copper electrode and a standard h...Figure 14.3 Schematic of two electrically connected dissimilar metals in con...Figure 14.4 Illustration of rust formation. The oxidation reaction in the an...Figure 14.5 Example of a Pourbaix diagram for iron (Fe), assuming a passivat...Figure 14.6 Examples of galvanic corrosion at a microscale due to compositio...Figure 14.7 Examples of mechanical stress effects that can lead to corrosion...Figure 14.8 Examples of crevice corrosion due to low oxygen concentration. (...Figure 14.9 Illustration of the formation of a pit below a colony of bacteri...Figure 14.10 Scanning electron microscope images of (a) hydroxyapatite micro...Figure 14.11 Scanning electron microscope images of carbonate‐substituted hy...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 Main pathways for converting an insoluble polymer network into s...Figure 15.2 Examples of chemical groups in polymer chains that are resistant...Figure 15.3 Mass of PGA sutures (designated Dexon®), relative to their initi...Figure 15.4 Schematic illustration of a model for enzyme‐catalyzed hydrolysi...Figure 15.5 Weight loss versus time for PLA films during enzymatic degradati...Figure 15.6 Effect of hard segment content on the degradation of polyether u...Figure 15.7 Degradation of polyglycolic acid (PGA) sutures determined from t...Figure 15.8 Possible initiation, propagation, and termination reactions in t...Figure 15.9 Examples of sites (*) favorable for initial oxidative attack by ...Figure 15.10 Illustration of the susceptibility to autoxidation in the polyo...Figure 15.11 Electronic structures of the reactive molecules superoxide radi...Figure 15.12 Schematic of the production of hydroxyl radicals in the body fr...Figure 15.13 Illustration of free radicals attacking an implanted polymer. MFigure 15.14 Chemical structure of five suture materials.Figure 15.15 Percentage retention of tensile breaking force as a function of...Figure 15.16 Scanning electron microscope images of the surface of Monocryl ...Figure 15.17 (a) Number‐average molecular weight M_n and (b) polydispersity o...Figure 15.18 Crack pattern on inner surface of polyether urethane (PEU) insu...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Basic stages of biocompatibility phenomena upon implantation of ...Figure 16.2 The Vroman effect describes the competitive adsorption of molecu...Figure 16.3 Schematic illustration of the potential energy of interaction be...Figure 16.4 Illustration showing that cell attachment to a biomaterial surfa...Figure 16.5 Illustration of the structure of a typical eukaryotic animal cel...Figure 16.6 The fluid mosaic model of cellular membranes consisting mainly o...Figure 16.7 The major steps of DNA replication. DNA polymerase catalyzes for...Figure 16.8 RNA transcription involving base pairing along a single DNA temp...Figure 16.9 The two‐part process of gene expression. Part I involves transcr...Figure 16.10 Translation of the sequence of mRNA codons to a sequence of ami...Figure 16.11 Movement of peptides from the rough endoplasmic reticulum to th...Figure 16.12 Functional architecture of the mitochondrion showing (a) outer ...Figure 16.13 Illustration of the microstructure of microfilaments, microtubu...Figure 16.14 Illustration of a typical pattern of cytoskeletal actin microfi...Figure 16.15 Illustration of types of cell‐to‐cell junctions including tight...Figure 16.16 Mechanism of cell attachment to the extracellular matrix mediat...Figure 16.17 Ligand binding to the active form of integrin causes the tail p...Figure 16.18 Illustration of the structure of the four basic types of mammal...Figure 16.19 The families of cell types that derive from the three basic bod...Figure 16.20 Cells of circulating blood including erythrocytes, agranulocyte...Figure 16.21 Illustration comparing discoid morphology of circulating nonact...Figure 16.22 The cell‐based model of coagulation consisting of three success...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 The four stages of mechanotransduction: (1) force transmission w...Figure 17.2 Illustration depicting the process by which fibronectin‐bound α5...Figure 17.3 The process of cell migration occurs by dynamic assembly of foca...Figure 17.4 Depiction of cell‐ECM interactions to (a) maintain homeostasis d...Figure 17.5 Bone mechanotransduction process associated with fluid flow thro...Figure 17.6 Effects of sericin hydrogel injection on cardiac remodeling and ...Figure 17.7 Electrophoretic analysis of effectiveness of electrospun PCL mem...Figure 17.8 Effect of substrate stiffening for guided tissue engineering of ...Figure 17.9 Effects of cyclic uniaxial stretching on expression of contracti...Figure 17.10 Representation of mechanosensing of extracellular stresses via ...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Depiction of sequence of events of tissue inflammatory response ...Figure 18.2 Relative number of cells as a function of post‐wounding time, il...Figure 18.3 Process of neutrophil extravasation from microcirculation. Activ...Figure 18.4 Fluorescent detection of neutrophil accumulation at sites of inf...Figure 18.5 Illustration comparing the morphology of (a) nonactivated neutro...Figure 18.6 Mechanisms of formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)...Figure 18.7 Macrophage adhesion and accumulation on cellulose acetate membra...Figure 18.8 Assessment of adhesion of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) an...Figure 18.9 Depiction of pretreatment of stainless steel with sodium dodecyl...Figure 18.10 (a) Granulation tissue (arrow) at a surface wound showing chara...Figure 18.11 Depiction of transition from circulating monocyte to tissue mac...Figure 18.12 (a) Accumulation of acute and chronic inflammatory cells in tis...Figure 18.13 Depiction of phagocytic response of macrophages and foreign bod...Figure 18.14 (a) Comparison of internalization of C3 opsonized red blood cel...Figure 18.15 Photomicrograph of fibrous encapsulation around polydioxanone s...Figure 18.16 Depiction of removal of apoptotic neutrophils during the resolu...Figure 18.17 Extent of progression through inflammatory reactions to biomate...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Artist model of the three‐dimensional structure of an immunoglob...Figure 19.2 Depiction of Y‐shaped structure of immunoglobulin IgG composed o...Figure 19.3 Properties of the five major classes of immunoglobulins.Figure 19.4 Depiction of steps by which macrophages phagocytize and process ...Figure 19.5 Two‐step process of differentiation and activation of B cells. (...Figure 19.6 Depiction of the differentiation of a B lymphocyte to a plasma c...Figure 19.7 Relative levels of specific antibody during primary and secondar...Figure 19.8 Two‐step process of differentiation and activation of T cells. (...Figure 19.9 Depiction of process by which complement proteins interact with ...Figure 19.10 Representation of type IV hypersensitivity response to local re...Figure 19.11 Response in diabetic mice to an immunomodulatory biomaterial de...

20 Chapter 20Figure 20.1 Tower‐like architecture of a mature biofilm as seen in (a) scann...Figure 20.2 Sequence of biofilm formation on an implant surface precondition...Figure 20.3 Scanning electron microscope image of fimbriae appendages of the...Figure 20.4 Fluorescence microscope image of polymicrobic biofilm grown on a...Figure 20.5 Scanning electron micrograph of complete blockage of urethral ca...Figure 20.6 Scanning electron microscope image of polymicrobic biofilm on an...Figure 20.7 Laser scanning confocal microscope image of P. aeruginosa biofil...Figure 20.8 Macroscopic photo image of a Candida fungal biofilm on a prosthe...Figure 20.9 (a) Radiographic image prior to revision surgery for MRSA‐infect...Figure 20.10 (a) Comparison of in vivo formation of Staphylococcus aureus bi...Figure 20.11 Representative confocal microscopy images of biofilms of S. aur...Figure 20.12 Antibiofilm effect of cell wall polysaccharide (serotype K2) of...Figure 20.13 Depiction of bacteriophage therapy for degradation and removal ...Figure 20.14 Analysis of deformable prototype urinary catheter for controlle...

21 Chapter 21Figure 21.1 Number of rat calvarial osteoblasts and human gingival fibroblas...Figure 21.2 (a) SEM images of different positions (sand blasted, 1, 4, and 9...Figure 21.3 Microcomputed tomography scans of machined (a–c) and grit‐blaste...Figure 21.4 (a) Electron microscope images at different magnification showin...Figure 21.5 (a) SEM images of polystyrene (PS) cover strips of various surfa...Figure 21.6 Effects of microgroove patterning on phenotype expression of bon...Figure 21.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the creation of patterned PLGA ner...Figure 21.8 Scanning electron microscope images of (a) spinner shark skin an...Figure 21.9 SEM images of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) on polydimethyls...Figure 21.10 Atomic force microscope images of polyurethane specimens with a...Figure 21.11 (a) Illustration of rotating disc system used for testing of ba...Figure 21.12 SEM images of S. aureus adherence to the surface of (a) titaniu...Figure 21.13 Colony forming unit (CFU) of S. aureus on the surface of stainl...Figure 21.14 SEM images of the surface of as‐fabricated Si₃N₄ specimens impl...Figure 21.15 (a) Schematic illustration of the cross section of a bacterial ...Figure 21.16 Topographical characteristics of the cicada (Tibicen ssp.) wing...Figure 21.17 Bactericidal effect of cicada wing surface on Pseudomonas aerug...Figure 21.18 Predictions for the degree of membrane stretching as a function...Figure 21.19 Bactericidal effect of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) films on ...Figure 21.20 SEM images for E. coli after incubation for one hour on black s...Figure 21.21 Mechanisms of microparticle and nanoparticle endocytosis.Figure 21.22 Overall phagocytosis uptake (combination of attachment and inte...Figure 21.23 Model of particle‐ruffled membrane interaction to account for t...Figure 21.24 SEM images of polystyrene (PS) particles having the shape of sp...Figure 21.25 Comparison of attachment and internalization of particles of va...Figure 21.26 Potential interactions that can occur between internalized part...Figure 21.27 Sequence of events following release of wear particles from a h...Figure 21.28 (a) Dependence of cellular uptake of spherical gold nanoparticl...Figure 21.29 Model predictions for the endocytosis of nanoparticles by a lig...Figure 21.30 Effect of particle shape on the endocytosis of transferrin‐coat...Figure 21.31 (a) TEM images of cetyltrimethyl‐ammonium bromide (CTAB)‐coated...Figure 21.32 Gold nanoparticles with ordered arrangements of hydrophilic and...Figure 21.33 Effect of functionalization of gold nanoparticles (diameter ~2 ...Figure 21.34 Intracellular targets for cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. Nanopa...

22 Chapter 22Figure 22.1 Direct contact assay of sub‐confluent MC3T3‐E1 cells after incub...Figure 22.2 (a) MTT assay of proliferation of MLO‐A5 osteoblasts seeded on 1...Figure 22.3 Live/dead staining of pig periosteal osteoblasts after three day...Figure 22.4 Ames test for mutagenicity. Test chemical suspected of carcinoge...Figure 22.5 Mouse lymphoma assay performed with the mouse lymphoma cell line...Figure 22.6 Detection of genotoxicity by visualization of sister chromatid e...Figure 22.7 Enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) such as for detection ...Figure 22.8 SEM visualization of activated platelets with dendritic extensio...Figure 22.9 Histological analysis of tissue response to subcutaneous implant...Figure 22.10 Histological analysis of intramuscular response to implantation...Figure 22.11 Histological analysis of response to graft conduit fabricated f...

23 Chapter 23Figure 23.1 (a) Examples of internal fracture fixation plates for stabilizin...Figure 23.2 Four stages of bone fracture healing: (a) hematoma formation, (b...Figure 23.3 Process of endochondral bone formation that occurs in fetal deve...Figure 23.4 Illustration of (a) cell‐based and (b) growth factor‐based appro...Figure 23.5 Illustration of common bone defect sites in small animals. (a) B...Figure 23.6 Optical images of hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained images of ...Figure 23.7 (a) Average percentage of bone and bone marrow in stained sectio...Figure 23.8 (a) Micro‐CT images of rat calvarial defects implanted with poro...Figure 23.9 Transmitted light images of H&E stained sections of rat calvaria...Figure 23.10 Transmitted light images of H&E stained sections of mouse calva...Figure 23.11 Quantitation of bone formation from H&E stained sections of mou...Figure 23.12 (a) Percentage of bone, as a fraction of the total tissue withi...Figure 23.13 Optical images of H&E stained sections of MSC‐containing BCP im...Figure 23.14 Repair of nonunion rat femoral defects with implants composed o...Figure 23.15 Micro‐CT images showing external view and cross‐section of segm...Figure 23.16 (a): X‐ray radiographs of rabbit femoral segmental defects fill...Figure 23.17 (a) Percent new bone (as a fraction of the total defect area) a...Figure 23.18 Illustration of the placement of prosthetic implants in (a) tot...Figure 23.19 (a) View of four stations of an eight‐station hip joint simulat...Figure 23.20 Range of wear rates (mm³ per million cycles) measured in hip si...Figure 23.21 Illustration of stabilization of the human spine using implants...Figure 23.22 Examples of spinal fusion cages composed of biomaterials: (a) p...Figure 23.23 Dental implants of various designs and with different surface m...Figure 23.24 Chemical structure of Bis‐GMA (bisphenol A‐glycidyl methacrylat...Figure 23.25 Dental bridge reflected on a mirror to show the interior. The b...Figure 23.26 Lithium disilicate dental restoration fabricated using computer...

24 Chapter 24Figure 24.1 Time for 50% reduction in tensile strength and for complete degr...Figure 24.2 Image showing the major anatomical components of the human heart...Figure 24.3 (a) Compliance (given as percentage change in diameter per mm Hg...Figure 24.4 Examples of compounds that generate nitric oxide (NO). (a) Gener...Figure 24.5 Release of NO from polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels containin...Figure 24.6 Inhibition of smooth muscle cell growth in vitro by polyethylene...Figure 24.7 Illustration of balloon angioplasty.Figure 24.8 Illustration of insertion of a stent using an inflatable balloon...Figure 24.9 Illustration of the structure of a drug‐eluting stent.Figure 24.10 (a) Main designs of mechanical heart valves; (b) bioprosthetic ...Figure 24.11 Schematic representation of the cross section of the human eye....Figure 24.12 Examples of intraocular lens (IOL) designs: (a) rigid one‐piece...Figure 24.13 Reaction scheme for the covalent bonding of polyethylene glycol...Figure 24.14 Stages of wound healing: (a) hemostasis, (b) inflammation, (c) ...Figure 24.15 Reaction scheme for incorporating ethylamine into dextran. DBTD...Figure 24.16 Modified dextran hydrogel as a treatment for burn wounds. (a) I...Figure 24.17 (a) Optical image of fibrous bioactive glass dressing for heali...Figure 24.18 Healing of two‐month old nonhealing wound (~5 cm in diameter an...Figure 24.19 Healing of full‐thickness skin wounds (2 cm in diameter) in a r...Figure 24.20 Improvement of wound healing in diabetic healing‐impaired mice ...Figure 24.21 (a) Optical micrographs, and (b), (c) hematoxylin and eosin (H&...Figure 24.22 Reaction scheme for the preparation of gold nanoparticles funct...Figure 24.23 Topical application of GM3S (ganglioside‐monosialic acid 3 synt...Figure 24.24 Syndecan‐4 proteoliposomes enhance wound healing in diabetic mi...Figure 24.25 Schematic representation of the delivery of sandecan‐4 proteoli...

25 Chapter 25Figure 25.1 Three main approaches to regenerative medicine: tissue engineeri...Figure 25.2 Main components of the tissue engineering approach: biomaterials...Figure 25.3 Illustration of in vivo (or in situ) tissue engineering approach...Figure 25.4 Illustration of the stages of human embryo development up to the...Figure 25.5 Schematic diagram showing trends in the strength of a tissue con...Figure 25.6 SEM image of fibrous collagen network of ECM scaffold derived fr...Figure 25.7 Schematic showing an overview of the tissue regeneration process...Figure 25.8 SEM images of scaffolds in the form of porous solids prepared by...Figure 25.9 SEM images of (a) bioactive glass (13–93) scaffold prepared by a...Figure 25.10 Schematic diagram illustrating the unidirectional freezing of s...Figure 25.11 Three‐dimensional micro‐computed tomography (micro‐CT) images o...Figure 25.12 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic setup for electrospinni...Figure 25.13 Modifications of the basic electrospinning technique to produce...Figure 25.14 Illustration of basic approach to additive manufacturing (3D pr...Figure 25.15 Schematic illustration of the fused deposition modeling (FDM) t...Figure 25.16 Schematic illustration of the selective laser sintering (SLS) t...Figure 25.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the stereolithography technique; ...Figure 25.18 (a) Schematic of a two‐nozzle delivery system in a robocasting ...Figure 25.19 Schematic illustration of droplet formation in drop‐on‐demand i...Figure 25.20 Chart showing the region of fluid properties where inkjet dropl...Figure 25.21 Illustration of two approaches for the creation of cell‐contain...Figure 25.22 (a) Schematic illustration of a 3D bioprinting method to create...Figure 25.23 Vascularization of endothelial cell (EC)‐containing printed tis...Figure 25.24 Bone formation in amniotic fluid stem cell (AFSC)‐containing pr...Figure 25.25 Schematic illustration of microextrusion‐based three‐dimensiona...Figure 25.26 (a) Example of the structure of a gelatin‐methacrylic anhydride...Figure 25.27 Bioprinting of aortic valve conduit using microextrusion techni...Figure 25.28 Illustration showing the combined properties of collagens and a...Figure 25.29 (Top): Schematic illustration of technique used to create multi...Figure 25.30 (a) Schematic illustration of the cross section of an osteochon...Figure 25.31 India ink staining of (a) as‐fabricated scaffold, scaffold with...Figure 25.32 (a) Number of chondrocytes in cartilage layer, matrix density, ...Figure 25.33 The hierarchical architecture of tendon. Collagen triple‐helice...Figure 25.34 Histology (hematoxylin and eosin stained sections) of (a) neote...Figure 25.35 Schematic illustration of steps in tissue engineering for the c...Figure 25.36 Illustration of layers in human bladder tissue.Figure 25.37 Construction of engineered bladder tissue. (a) Scaffold seeded ...Figure 25.38 Morphological analysis of implanted engineered bladder. (a–c) C...

26 Chapter 26Figure 26.1 Schematic illustration of drug concentration in plasma as a func...Figure 26.2 Mechanisms of drug release from solid polymeric systems: (a) dif...Figure 26.3 (a) Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of nearly monodispe...Figure 26.4 Chart showing steps in the oil‐in‐water (O/W) technique for prep...Figure 26.5 (a, b) Proposed structure of supramolecular hydrogel network com...Figure 26.6 Schematic representation of depot drug delivery system composed ...Figure 26.7 Tumor volume versus treatment time for tumors created by subcuta...Figure 26.8 Schematic illustration comparing drug concentration in plasma as...Figure 26.9 Illustration of ultrasound‐mediated drug delivery. (a) Ultrasoun...Figure 26.10 (a) Growth curves for human MDA‐MB‐231 breast tumors in mice. T...Figure 26.11 Illustration of magnetic field‐mediated drug delivery. Hydrogel...Figure 26.12 (a) Stress versus strain curves for nanoporous ferrogel and mac...Figure 26.13 Cumulative release profiles of mitoxantrone from macroporous fe...Figure 26.14 Illustration of the basic constituents of nanoparticle‐based dr...Figure 26.15 (a) Passive targeting of nanocarriers: (1) Nanocarriers reach t...Figure 26.16 Receptor‐mediated endocytosis of folate‐conjugated drugs. The f...Figure 26.17 Development of prostate‐specific membrane antigen (PSMA)‐target...Figure 26.18 Effect of aptamer (Apt) surface density on nanoparticle (NP) di...Figure 26.19 (a) Chemical structure showing basic parts of a lipid, shown fo...Figure 26.20 Illustration of liposome‐like structures: conventional (classic...Figure 26.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the preparation of lipid‐polymer ...Figure 26.22 Illustration of (top) building blocks and (bottom) cross sectio...Figure 26.23 Description of the shape formed by amphiphilic block copolymer ...Figure 26.24 Illustration of drug release from (a) pH responsive polymersome...Figure 26.25 Drug incorporation, release and antitumor activity of polymerso...Figure 26.26 Schematic illustration comparing the structure of (a) micelle f...Figure 26.27 (a) Schematic illustration of the structure of micelle formed f...Figure 26.28 Schematic illustrations of some types of polymer conjugates.Figure 26.29 Structure of an N‐(2‐hydroxypropyl) methacrylamide (HPMA) copol...Figure 26.30 Schematic illustration of two types of dendrimer‐based drug del...Figure 26.31 Structure of polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers synthesized from...Figure 26.32 RNA interference. Long dsRNA introduced into the cytoplasm is p...Figure 26.33 Common modifications of the siRNA structure. (a) Modifications ...Figure 26.34 Lipid structures and shapes. (a) Ionizable lipids are composed ...Figure 26.35 Formulation of lipid nanoparticles for the delivery of mRNA or ...Figure 26.36 (a) Composition of a water‐soluble cyclodextrin‐based polymer s...Figure 26.37 Illustration of endosomal pathway for the generation of exosome...Figure 26.38 In vivo delivery of siRNA by exosomes targeted to the brain of ...