Читать книгу The Muslim 100 - Muhammad Mojlum Khan - Страница 6

EDMUND BURKE, the renowned Irish philosopher and statesman, once said, ‘People will not look forward to posterity, who never look backward to their ancestors.’ Likewise, Aldous Huxley, the acclaimed English novelist, wrote, ‘That men do not learn very much from the lessons of history is the most important of all the lessons that history has to teach.’ But what actually is history? Abd al-Rahman ibn Khaldun, the father of the philosophy of history, wrote in his famous Muqaddimah fi’l Tarikh (Introduction to History), ‘History is a discipline that has a great number of approaches. Its useful aspects are very many. Its goal is distinguished. History makes us acquainted with the conditions of past nations as they are reflected in their national character. It makes us acquainted with the biographies of the prophets and with the dynasties and policies of rulers. Whoever so desires may thus achieve the useful result of being able to imitate historical examples in religious and worldly matters. The (writing of history) requires numerous sources and much varied knowledge.’

Few historians would disagree with Ibn Khaldun that writing history requires ‘numerous sources and much varied knowledge.’ I became fascinated by history, especially Islamic history, when I was in my early teens. To me the past is as important as the present, because without a proper understanding of the past we are unlikely to understand our present condition, and without a proper understanding of the present we will not be able to shape our future. Our past, present and future are therefore interconnected and interdependent. Indeed, I would go so far as to say our past is more important than our future, because we cannot control and shape our future if we are not aware of our past. Therefore knowing and understanding our history is not optional: it is a necessity. It is also true that the ancient Greek historians such as Herodotus of Halicarnassus and Thucydides of Athens wrote history as if history was no more than the unfolding of a sequence of events. Like them, the early Islamic historians such as Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri, Ibn Jarir al-Tabari and Abul Faraj al-Isfahani also considered history to be a sequence of events. However, other Muslim historians like Abul Hasan al-Mas’udi, Abul Hasan Ali ibn al-Athir and Ibn Khaldun took a more logical and critical approach to history. The latter in particular sought to explore and identify the underlying causes or factors which triggered the sequence of events in the first place. That is why Ibn Khaldun considered history and philosophy to be two sides of the same coin. Therefore, in order to understand and fully appreciate history, he felt an understanding of philosophy was required and vice versa.

However, there is another group of historians who consider history to be no more than a playground for prominent peoples and personalities: as one famous historian said, ‘There is properly no history: only biography.’ This view was reinforced by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche who stated that history was no more than ‘His-story’. The proponents of this view are more concerned with the ‘actors’ (historymakers), rather than the actions (the sequence of events or historical process as such). However, from an Islamic perspective history is not merely a sequence of events, nor is it entirely a playground for influential people and personalities; it is both of these things and more. Indeed, the Qur’anic approach to history is integrative, holistic and comprehensive in the sense that it acknowledges the role played by ‘creative personalities’ (as Sir Arnold J. Toynbee put it), natural causes or phenomena and also direct Divine intervention in the process of history. Thus, according to the Qur’an, history is neither entirely pre-ordained nor wholly deterministic, like the Marxist and Hegelian notions of history and historical change. On the contrary it says, ‘Surely, God will not change the condition of a people until they change their own condition.’ (13:11). And, ‘God is on the side of those who fear Him, and do good.’ (16:128). Likewise, the Qur’an argues (see, for instance, Surat Hud verse 114) that the historical process is much more than a rigid chain of ‘cause and effect’ – unlike the views advanced by historians like Oswald Spengler. Instead, the notion of selectivity on the basis of moral imperative is central to the Qur’anic concept of historical change. ‘God’, says the Qur’an ‘will not leave the believers in the condition in which they are until He separates the wrongdoers from those who are righteous.’ (3:179). Thus, in addition to time-space factors and the moral imperative, direct Divine intervention (whether in the form of reward or punishment) is also an integral part of the Qur’anic understanding of history and historical change. ‘Say: He has power to send calamities on you, from above and below, or to cover you with confusion in party strife, giving you a taste of mutual vengeance – each from the other.’ (6:65). And, ‘The reward of God is best for those who believe and work righteousness: but this none shall attain, save those who steadfastly persevere.’ (28:80).

From the above discussion, it is clear that the Qur’anic concept of history, unlike the modern Western philosophies of history, is not only an integrative and multi-dimensional one, but is also based on a profound understanding of human nature and its possibilities. To his credit, Ibn Khaldun understood and appreciated this multi-layered approach to history, as is evident from his pioneering Muqaddimah fi’l Tarikh. Inspired by Ibn Khaldun and others, Arnold J. Toynbee also pursued a similar approach to history in his monumental A Study of History, but ultimately his notion of history was dominated by the Christian idea of a ‘saviour’ rather than the Qur’anic view of man and his role and purpose in the universe. ‘And remember Abraham was tried by his Lord with certain commands, which he fulfilled: He said: “I will make you a leader to the nations.” He pleaded: “And also (leaders) from my offspring!” He answered: “But My promise is not within the reach of the wrong-doers.” ’ (2:124). And ‘(remember) Noah, when he cried (to Us) aforetime: We listened to his (prayer) and delivered him and his family from great distress…And remember David and Solomon, when they gave judgement in the matter of the field into which the sheep of certain people had strayed by night: We did witness their judgement…And (remember) Job, when he cried to his Lord, “Truly distress has seized me, but You are the Most Merciful of those that are merciful.”…And (remember) Ishmael, Enoch and Dhul-kifl, all (men) of constancy and patience… And remember Zun-nun (Jonah)…And (remember) Zachariah… And (remember) her (Mary) who guarded her chastity: We breathed into her of Our Spirit, and We made her and her son (Jesus) a sign for all peoples.’ (21:76-91). In short, according to the Qur’an, the main purpose of history is to remind us of who we are, what our role and purpose is, and to learn lessons from the past.

If understanding human nature and our role and purpose within the Divine scheme of things is central to the Qur’anic view of history, then how should one explore and analyse Islamic history? And, indeed, what actually do we mean by Islamic history? Strictly speaking, Islamic history did not begin with the Prophet Muhammad or with Abraham or Ishmael. Rather, according to Islamic tradition, Adam was the first human being and also the first Muslim. Not surprisingly, the classical Islamic historians (such as al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir) began their works with Adam and covered the careers of all other prominent Prophets and Kings – including Noah (Nuh), Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa), David (Dawud), Solomon (Sulaiman), John the Baptist (Yahya) and Jesus (Isa) – all the way down to Prophet Muhammad, who is considered to be the Seal of Prophecy. Since these and all other Prophets are regarded as Muslims, the history of the whole of humanity was considered by the classical Muslim historians to be nothing other than the unfolding of Islamic history in its broadest sense. However, with regard to their methodology and approach, the vast majority of the classical and modern Muslim historians have explored Islamic history in a chronological way, without necessarily analysing their data and information in a rigorous and systematic manner.

This book, however, begins with the advent of the Prophet Muhammad and ends in our own time. Additionally, I have not adopted a chronological approach to the study of Islamic history. Instead, in this book an attempt has been made to explore Islamic history through the lives, thoughts and achievements of one hundred of the most influential Muslims. Influence, based on their contributions and achievements, was therefore my main criterion for selection and inclusion in this book. But this raises an interesting question, namely how the nature and extent of each person’s influence was to be measured? I began by examining their lives and thoughts, and then proceeded to assess the nature of their contribution by evaluating what they actually did and what was so special or extraordinary about their deeds, actions and accomplishments. In so doing, I was able to determine whether their contributions and achievements had made them national, regional or international figures. Against this I could evaluate the intellectual, social, political, economic or cultural importance, value and impact of their contributions and achievements over time. For example, by pursuing this approach I was able to include Muhammad Yunus (the great Bangladeshi economist, banker and the pioneer of the system of micro-credit) in this book, but exclude Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (the founding father of Bangladesh) since the latter’s accomplishment has been largely ‘national’ or, at best, ‘regional’, while the former is today widely considered to be an important ‘international’ figure whose contribution and achievement has become ‘global’, thanks to the increasing popularity of micro-credit across the world.

Likewise, in the field of hadith literature, both Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani and Yahya al-Nawawi were two remarkable figures and it is not surprising that today they are highly regarded by the scholars of Islam, but it is also a fact that the works of the latter are much more widely-known throughout the Muslim world and in the West than those of the former. In fact, al-Nawawi’s Kitab al-Arba’in (The Book of Forty hadith) and Riyadh as-Saliheen (The Garden of the Righteous) have not only been translated into all the world’s prominent languages, but they are also very popular across the globe. Consequently, I had no choice but to include al-Nawawi in this book and exclude Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani – despite being a big fan of the latter. In short, the one hundred people who feature in this book have been chosen and ranked on the basis of their all-round influence, which in turn was determined mainly – though not entirely – by their contributions and achievements. And although I have tried to be logical, critical and also fair and objective in my approach to, and exploration of, the lives, thoughts and achievements of all the people included in this book, I am aware that my method of selection and ranking may nonetheless generate some discussion and debate among scholars and lay people, Muslims and non-Muslims alike. Since one of the aims of this book is to popularise Islamic culture and history, and encourage both Muslims and non-Muslims to directly engage with Islamic thought and culture, I will feel my efforts duly rewarded if this book manages to generate some discussion and debate about the role played by some of the Muslim world’s most influential figures and personalities during more than fourteen centuries of Islamic history.

Issues of selection and ranking aside, exploring Islamic history through the lives of some of its most influential figures – whether that is ten people, fifty, or a hundred – does present a number of other challenges and difficulties. Not least of which was that I underestimated the amount of time, effort and energy that would be required to survey more than fourteen hundred years of Islamic history, beginning with the birth of the Prophet Muhammad and ending in our own time.

Additionally, given the multi-disciplinary nature of this book, I not only had to explore a large quantity of historical data and information; it was also necessary to acquire some understanding of kalam (Islamic theology), tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis), hadith literature, falsafah (philosophy), fiqh (jurisprudence), usul al-fiqh (science of Islamic jurisprudence), tasawwuf (mysticism), aspects of science, mathematics, Arabic literature, Persian poetry, heresiographical thought and architectural history among other subjects. What was even more difficult was selecting only a hundred people from the hundreds, if not thousands, of prominent and influential Muslims who have left their indelible marks in the annals of history. As one of the world’s great religions, Islam created a dazzling culture and civilisation which today extends from Morocco in North Africa, all the way to Indonesia in the Far East; and from Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, to as far as Uzbekistan in Central Asia.

Thus, consisting of more than fifty-five Muslim majority countries and over a billion people today, Muslims have left their fingerprints on every field of human endeavour. It is not surprising, therefore, that some of history’s most influential men and women have been Muslims. In the words of George Sarton, the renowned historian of science and author of Introduction to the History of Science, ‘The main task of mankind was accomplished by Muslims. The greatest philosopher, al-Farabi, was a Muslim; the greatest mathematicians, Abu Kamil and Ibrahim ibn Sinan, were Muslims; the greatest geographer and encyclopaedist, al-Mas’udi, was a Muslim; the greatest historian, al-Tabari, was still a Muslim.’ Chosen by the author, this book only briefly explores the lives, thoughts and achievements of one hundred such influential Muslim men and women. It should also be pointed out that Islamic scholars and historians have written extensively about most of the people covered in this book, so the readers should not take these biographies as the final word on the lives and thoughts of the people included here. Rather, I hope, this book will encourage and inspire the readers to pursue their own study and research into Islamic thought, history, culture and civilisation.

Due to geographical, cultural, intellectual and historical overlaps, it was not possible to avoid some repetition. Hopefully, the readers will understand and appreciate why this was unavoidable as they go through the book. I went to great lengths to avoid using unnecessary jargon and technical language, but in some places this was unavoidable (for instance, when discussing aspects of theology, philosophy or mysticism). In addition, all the chapters begin with an introductory statement which seeks to place the personality concerned within their socio-political or cultural context and I have ensured that all the entries are of roughly equal length. In order to simplify things, only the Gregorian dates have been provided within the main text of the book, but I have included their hijri (Islamic) equivalent in the chronology at the end of the book. Since the hijri year consists of twelve lunar months of 29 or 30 days each, the Islamic calendar is about 11 days shorter than its Gregorian equivalent; thus the converted dates – as they appear in the chronology – are approximate. Again, for the sake of simplicity, I have not used any diacritics except for such common words and names like the Qur’an, Mu’tazilah, al-Ash’ari and al-Ma’mun. Likewise, I have completely avoided footnotes because this book is aimed primarily at students and lay readers, but most of the books and articles I read and consulted are listed in the select bibliography. Nearly all the Arabic words and titles of books cited within the text have been translated into English for the benefit of the readers. Moreover, according to Islamic custom, when the name of the Prophet Muhammad is mentioned, the words sallallahu alaihi wasallam (peace and blessing of God be upon him) should be added. When the name of any other Prophet is mentioned, the words alaihis salam (peace be upon him) should be added. When the name of a male companion of the Prophet is mentioned, the words radiAllahu anhu (God be pleased with him) should be added. And, finally, when the name of a female companion of the Prophet is mentioned, the words radiAllahu anha (God be pleased with her) should be added. All Muslim readers are reminded to observe this Islamic custom, as I have not included these customary salutations within the main text of the book for the sake of brevity and simplicity.

My studies concerning Islamic thought, history, culture and civilisation have occupied me for nearly twenty years now, since I was about thirteen, and unquestionably this book could not have been written without the sources listed in the select bibliography. I am extremely grateful to the authors, editors, translators and publishers of these and other books and articles I have read, and should anything I say in this book appear in any way similar to their ideas and thoughts, it is because I have drawn my information from them. The first draft of this book was completed in November 2005, exactly a month before my thirty-second birthday, but due to a heavy workload it was not possible to thoroughly check and revise the manuscript at the time. However, during 2006 I revised the manuscript several times, and the final revision was completed in August 2007. And, given the nature and size of this book, it is possible that some errors have escaped my attention and scrutiny. Thus should anyone spot any factual inaccuracies or errors, I would be grateful if they could write to the publisher so that the errors can be rectified in any future edition of this book.

Finally, I need to thank a number of people. Firstly, I am grateful to Professor Dr. Muhammad Abdul Jabbar Beg, FRAS, who is a distinguished Islamic historian and a prolific writer, for thoroughly reading a draft version of this book and making numerous corrections and suggestions for improvement. I am indebted to Mawlana Mohammed Mushfiqur Rahman (who specialised in hadith literature at al-Azhar University) and Hafiz Abdullah Muhammad (a writer and Islamic researcher) for reading a draft version of this book and providing valuable feedback. Likewise, I am grateful to Ahmed J.Versi, the editor of The Muslim News (a leading British Muslim newspaper), for not only reading this book and making some useful and interesting comments, but also for encouraging me to write regularly for his esteemed newspaper. Rod Bushell agreed to thoroughly check the whole manuscript and, in the process, he raised numerous queries and questions which enabled me to clarify many issues and further improve and enhance the book.

My wife has been a source of blessing since our marriage nearly nine years ago. Without her support, encouragement and tolerance, this book could not have been written. At times I studied for more than twelve hours a day, but she accepted and tolerated my excesses and absent-mindedness; may the Almighty reward her most abundantly. As for my two young sons, Muhtadi aged six and Mustafa aged four, they kept-on asking when the book would be completed. To them, I say, it is now complete. Likewise, my sister Sabia helped produce the chronology, and Motin and Shelina assisted in so many other ways. My mother was keen for me to finish the book so I could take some rest. I am also grateful to Yahya Birt, Commissioning Editor, and all his colleagues at Kube Publishing for their constructive criticism, suggestions and contributions.

Ultimately, however, my success in my task can only come from Him; the One and Only (al-Ahad). Blessed is His Name and salutation (salawat) upon His most beloved, the light by whom others are guided to the Light (al-Nur), and to Him is our final return.