Читать книгу The Prophet Muhammad - Muhammad Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi - Страница 9
ОглавлениеEVOLUTION OF THE MUSLIM MINORITY IN MAKKAH
By quirk of fate the true faith of Islam always had its beginning and progress in a polity dominated by non-Muslims. Muslims were always in minority in their town. It helped establish their identity in a multi-faith, pluralistic society. Their religious order was set up in opposition to the mainstream culture and civilization. Little wonder then that Islam faced stiff opposition. The old order could not put up with them, especially the reform introduced by Islam. This battle between truth and falsehood has been waged from the days of the Prophet Ādam to the Prophet Muḥammad (peace be upon him), the Final Messenger. This is the very belief of Islam and is at the heart of the cultural, community and religious history of Islam. It would not be out of place to assert that it has been a persistent tradition of world civilizations.
The battle between the old and the new orders led to many outcomes. In the phase preceding the Prophet Muḥammad’s advent ancestral faith generally gained ascendancy while the true believers were exiled and martyred. The forces representing falsehood were, however, destroyed in line with Allah’s practice. Divine penalty overtook them reducing them to naught. Earlier believers were sometimes rewarded with success or gained power in their land of emigration. At times the whole community was transformed.
The Prophet Muḥammad (peace be upon him), it must be recalled, was the final Messenger and Islam the universal, eternal faith for everyone. It was, therefore, inevitable that his message be preserved for ever. Accordingly it is destined that Islam had its beginning and evolution in the non-Muslim milieu of Makkah. The accomplishing phase took place in Madīnah as Islam was ascendant. Makkan Islam, nonetheless, served as the basis for Islam in Madīnah. The latter represents the extension and completion of the former. Moreover, Makkan Islam provides the Prophetic role model for the growth of Islam in a non-Muslim society, an example to be emulated by Muslim minorities in all lands until the Last Day.
These are two features of the universal message of Islam. Historical factors and laws of nature throw ample light on the rise and fall of all communities.
Several Qur’ānic verses as principles and the stories of Prophets as parables clarify these stages explicitly. While addressing Muslims the Qur’ān makes it plain that Islam is universal whereas the rise and fall of the Muslims is contingent upon the laws of nature, especially of causality. If Muslims fulfill necessary conditions for gaining ascendancy, pursue consistently the path of hard work, they are bound to attain success. If they fail to do so, they would be consigned to the abyss of fall and degeneration. This divine exhortation appears thus in the Qur’ān: ‘If you turn back from the path, Allah would substitute you with another people, then they would not be like you.’1 The same is pronounced as the unalterable way of Allah. It is made clear that Muslims would undergo rise and fall in proportion to their conduct. This divine promise came true in the very early days of the Makkan phase that Makkan Muslims would achieve heights of success. They were told unequivocally that in the event of their violation of divine commands the Prophet’s teachings and laws of nature, they would be subject to loss and destruction. Many Qur’ānic verses of the Makkan period bring home the above point. These bear out the above truth.
The construction and evolution of the Muslim ummah in the Makkan phase and its consolidation and perfection in the Madīnan phase underscore the same divine law. Every community is subject to growth and decline. The Muslim community is subject to growth and decline. The Muslim community is not an exception to it. These verses thus reinforce the universality, timelessness and meaningfulness of the Qur’ānic message which the gifted souls cannot afford to ignore.
As it became apparent that Muslims would undergo both rise and fall, it was imperative that relevant laws for these two stages be in place. The same distinction pervades the Makkan and Madīnan sūrahsin terms of their rulings and teachings. Makkan commands and exhortations are the guidelines for Muslim minorities while Madīnan ones cater for the powerful Muslim community. The Qur’ān exhorts man to reflect and act insightfully. In line with this it emerges that the division between Makkan and Madīnan phases is premised on the same wisdom, emanating from laws of nature. For, it was not beyond Allah’s power to bless Muslims with power in the Makkan phase itself. The Makkan Quraysh would have pledged subservience. However, Allah intended that the Muslim community should face both the situations. Accordingly, ascendancy was granted only in the Madīnan phase.
The distinct difference between the two phases was sharpened by divine revelation and hence it was perceived by the Prophet (peace be upon him). The leading Companions and their followers too, appreciated this important point. The Quraysh chiefs who were gifted with far-sightedness and a balanced approach to things did discern this philosophy of ascendancy and subservience and of majority and minority, to some extent. As guided by Allah, the Prophet (peace be upon him) devised his strategy in the Makkan phase while the Quraysh chiefs acted in their own ways. The Makkan model was formulated in the light of Makkan sūrahs and other divine commands. For thirteen years Muslims were trained how to live as a minority and how to construct their society for achieving progress and success. It enabled them to do well in the Madīnan phase and helped produce a blue print for Muslim minorities, providing them with a way of life and of constructing their society.
The Prophet’s Career: Rationale behind Makkan and Madīnan Phases
Generally speaking, traditional biographers of the Prophet (peace be upon him), who abide by Oriental values, do not analyze vigorously the Makkan phase of the Prophet’s career. They faithfully follow primary sources. They are so much swayed by Ibn Isḥāq’s and Ibn Hishām’s work, Al-Sīrah al-Nabawīyah, that they blindly follow in their footsteps. They betray sheer ignorance of the factors and phases of the evolution of the Prophet’s career. So doing, they keep the readers in the dark. Generally their practice is to describe the thirteen long years of the Prophet’s Makkan phase from 610 CE to 623 CE in terms of providing an account of the ills of the Jāhiliyyah period and relating the Prophet’s ancestors and his assuming the office of messengership. They strictly follow the line adopted by the classical masters, Ibn Isḥāq and Ibn Hishām. Then they offer a traditional overview of the sending down of revelation, the gradual revelation of the Qur’ān, the divine command for making a call to Islam, early Muslims’ acceptance of Islam, the preaching of Islam in both secret and public and other familiar events. Their treatment of the Islamic commands and Qur’ānic teachings does not advance understanding. By mentioning only the beliefs and some other religious commands they fail to present a complete picture of Islam. This is on account of the lack of a detailed analysis. As a result, they fall short of projecting how the Muslim community was constituted in the Makkan phase.
The truth of the matter is much more complex, varied and multi-layered. The Prophet had adopted a particular strategy for this phase of subjugation. He had devised it with reference to the Qur’ānic directives and other divine instructions. His main objective was to erect the Muslim community. It is clear from some Qur’ānic passages and aḥādīth that at times, the Muslim community comprised a single individual. For example, the Qur’ān brands the Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him) as a community unto himself. In a similar vein, the Prophet (peace be upon him) spoke of Zayd ibn Nufayl as a single community. A single votary of Allah thus constitutes unto himself a community. Another note-worthy point is that a single person has the potential to blossom into an entire community. Presently it is only in its potential form. However it can grow into a full-fledged community. This potential has existed since the days of the Prophet Adam (peace be upon him) and passed on to his progeny. It pervades man’s primordial covenant and also the community embodied by the Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him). Being his successor and the seal of Messengers, the Prophet Muḥammad (peace be upon him) was a community unto himself.
Viewed against this background when the Prophet (peace be upon him) embraced Islam in preference to the Quraysh’s ancestral faith, the Qur’ān branded him as the first of believers and Muslims. It is worth-reiterating that Muslims did not exist then. Yet in view of the vast potentials the Qur’ān conferred upon him the above honour. His acceptance of Islam established the principle that everyone is free to choose his faith. The Qur’ān, other Scriptures and traditions of all communities recognize this basic right.
Right to Choose Faith
It is borne out by the jāhiliyyah practices of the Makkan Quraysh and of later history that every member of Makkan society enjoyed the freedom to choose their faith. This explains why there were Christians, Jews, idolators, pagans, Ḥunafā’ and followers of the Abrahamic faith in Makkah. No one ever challenged their right to profess the faith of their choice. When the Quraysh chiefs learnt about the Prophet’s new faith, they accepted it as an instance of his choice. This is endorsed by several reports.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) professed the Abrahamic faith in its original form and this was accepted by his elders and Quraysh chiefs. When Abū Ṭālib ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib ibn Hāshim, the Prophet’s patron and head of Banū Hāshim, saw the Prophet (peace be upon him) praying, he enquired about his faith. The latter clarified that it was the faith handed down by the Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him). The former did not deter him from doing so. Rather, he accepted it. He allowed his own young son, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to accept the new faith.2 This incident is reported at length by Ibn Isḥāq and Ibn Hishām. For example, in response to Abū Ṭālib’s query about the new faith, the Prophet (peace be upon him) introduced it as the faith approved by Allah hence it is the faith of angels, messengers, and of the patriarch Prophet Abraham (peace be upon him) with which he was sent down for mankind. Abū Ṭālib not only let him and ʿAlī profess the faith of their choice, he pledged to lend them all help and support.3 Regarding ʿAfīf al-Kindī’s acceptance of Islam it is stated that al-ʿAbbās ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib al-Hāshimī had granted him this right. Al-ʿAbbās was the Prophet’s uncle and a leading member of Banū Hāshim and Quraysh.
This point comes out more sharply in the context of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb’s acceptance of Islam. When some Quraysh leaders took to beating ʿUmar for his crime of embracing Islam, Al-ʿĀṣibn Wā’il al-Sahmī, a prominent leader of Makkah and the Quraysh dissuaded them from it saying that they had no business as ʿUmar had exercised his right to choose a faith. He asked them to leave ʿUmar alone.4 Ibn Isḥāq, Ibn Hishām, Ibn Saʿd and other biographers inform that the Prophet (peace be upon him) made a call to Islam both openly and secretly and people responded positively to it yet the Quraysh did not stop it. However, when the Prophet (peace be upon him) criticized their idols, they took to opposing him.5
Ibn Saʿd’s additional report is that some young persons and members of the weaker sections accepted Islam. As a result, the number of Muslims increased. Yet the unbelieving Quraysh did not object.6
The above account is reinforced by reports about the acceptance of Islam by many persons. It is clear that the Quraysh never contested as to why they had embraced the new faith. This applies to both the young of the Quraysh elite and the poor Muslims. In accordance with Quraysh norms everyone was free to profess a faith of his choice. Muslims availed themselves of the same. There was no element of compulsion in these conversions. It was widely accepted that the excellent teachings of Islam, the miraculous features of the Qur’ān, the Prophet’s unblemished conduct and ideal character had paved the way for Islam. In addition, the following two factors were at work: i) Islam was the natural way, as is asserted in the Qur’ān and ḥadīth. Man is attracted by faith which was the ancestral faith of the Makkans. Even the Quraysh chiefs could not dare deny it. This truth comes out in the Prophet’s conversation with Abū Ṭālib al-Hāshimī. It stresses also the law of nature that Islam is the only faith acceptable to Allah. It has been the faith of earlier Messengers and of the angels enjoying proximity with Allah. This links Islam to earlier Messengers. The above truth is reiterated in the Qur’ān. Islam is the faith with Allah.7 The Islamic concept of the unity of faith served as the clinching argument for the People of the Book. The Qur’ān introduces itself as the Scripture confirming and reinforcing the truth of the Torah and the Gospels.8
The universality of the Qur’ān goes hand in hand with the concepts of the unity of faith and the oneness of the Muslim ummah. Since all messengers presented the same faith and all Scriptures confirm one another and Islam is the only faith, all the believers naturally represent one single community. While speaking of earlier Messengers and their communities the Qur’ān describes them as a single community. The latest form of this community was to be organized in Makkah, consisting of Muslims. The articles of faith, earliest Islamic teachings of Makkah and the Prophet’s statements held Makkan Muslims as a single entity. It was to be expanded at a later date on a vast scale. Both the Makkan and Madīnan sūrahs present this concept, which was imbibed well by Muslims. We will take up this point later.
Right to Preach
It has been the right of the members of all civilized societies to profess a faith of their choice and to preach it in a peaceful manner. This lesson was taught by nature at an early date to man and was followed by all earlier nations, groups and individuals. Freedom of faith is logically linked with the right to preach. What one likes is preached by him for others. This right is universally recognized. However, this right is subject to the condition that no compulsion, temptation or financial incentive be there in calling people to embrace a particular faith. A proper understanding is essential. These points are generally acceptable to everyone. There is the oft-quoted Qur’ānic verse: ‘Let there be no compulsion in faith.’9 Another explicit verse to the same effect is: ‘Would you compel mankind against their will to believe?’10 For preaching and warning Allah prescribed the ruling for the Prophet (peace be upon him) that it should only be for conveying the message and for communication and understanding. The same was perfectly accomplished by the Prophet (peace be upon him). Peaceful preaching was the golden principle of the mission of all the Messengers. Reference to the same occurs in the Prophet Noah’s context: ‘Shall we compel you to accept it when you are averse to it?’11 Many Qur’ānic verses, Prophet’s statements and incidents from Islamic history may be cited in support of the above proposition that the call to faith and preaching of Islam must be pursued only peacefully. Any compulsion is undesirable.
As the main preacher of Islam the Prophet’s mode was always peaceful, natural, flexible and based on proper communication. To this was added the excellence of his conduct. The Qur’ānic model of spreading the good word was at the heart of his preaching: ‘Invite all to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching.’12 He stood out for his sincerity, his seeking good for everyone, his selfless devotion to Islam, his unfailing efforts in this cause and his readiness to sacrifice everything. Even Allah asked him not to exert so much in this cause. He did so out of overflowing love. Allah was, no doubt, intent upon the spread of His faith yet He did not want the Prophet (peace be upon him) to be hurt. For his safety ensured the success of Islam. With him around Islam could spread at its own pace. The Qur’ān pays tribute to the Prophet (peace be upon him) for having discharged his duty well. He preached and warned people. This he did out of his utmost dedication to Allah. Sūrahs al-Kahf and al-Shuʿarā’ are both Makkan. These contain the following observations: ‘You would only perchance fret yourself to following after them, in grief, if they do not believe in this message.’13 ‘It may be you fret your soul with grief that they do not become believers.’14
The Prophet’s Model for the one Calling to Faith
In the Makkan phase the Prophet (peace be upon him) adopted the following three ways for preaching Islam:
1. He personally went to everyone for instructing them in Islam. In the same vein, he visited homes, meeting places, localities, gatherings, markets even fairs for reciting the truth of Islam. It is evident from early sources that he did not wait for others to call on him. Rather, he took the lead in visiting them and blessed them with the message which would bring them success in both the worlds.15
2. He made each Companion of his a missionary preacher. Many reports indicate that the Qurayshī Companions and others carried out the preaching in their circles. Thanks to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq’s efforts six important members of the Quraysh accepted Islam. These early Muslims served as sincere preachers and spread the mission of Islam in their own ways. Like the Prophet (peace be upon him), their approach was broad and multi-directional.16
3. Another mode related to preaching Islam outside Makkah and in foreign lands. The Prophet resorted to it in the Makkan phase. It was his practice from early days to train such Muslims who came from distant places for preaching Islam among their people on their return. This strategy bore rich fruits. For it helped introduce Islam in the entire Arabian Peninsula. Often did it succeed in conveying the message of Islam to foreign lands. Some instances in point are: Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī to Ghifār and Aslam tribes; Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī to Ashʿar tribe; Ṭufayl ibn ʿAmr al-Dawsī to Daws; Ashajj ʿAbd al-Qays to ʿAbd al-Qays tribe of Bahrain and many others in different parts.17
Two Modes of Da‘wah
Two basic modes were used for preaching Islam in the Makkan phase. One was the secret mode of preaching and the other was public. These were not some temporary measures. Rather, these constituted an eternal practice. Both were interrelated in that one was to be followed by another. First, preaching was done privately and after its success it was carried out publicly. This order cannot be reversed. For there are many considerations behind this arrangement. In a non-Muslim society it is always imperative to preach in private. For it alone ensures success. This was the practice of earlier Messengers. The Prophet (peace be upon him) did so for three years, avoiding any public preaching. This secret exercise helped increase the number of Muslims. It avoided any unrest in the non-Muslim society. Nor did it incur any hostility which would have hampered the progress. After the success of this phase, public preaching was allowed. During the three years there was a sizeable number of Muslims. Reports make it plain that it was not a strictly surreptitious activity. The Quraysh chiefs as well as the general public knew about this call. However, they did not react publicly. They did not oppose the Prophet (peace be upon him) vehemently, for his call was in a low key. According to Ibn Isḥāq, many Makkan elites had accepted Islam owing to the Prophet’s secret preaching. He provides a list of these converts and clarifies that at a later date men and women accepted Islam en masse. As a result, Islam gained currency in Makkah and was a common topic of discussion.18
It may be argued that a nucleus community should exist prior to making a call for preaching. Otherwise, non-believers might react so furiously that the nascent community of believers would perish altogether. This had happened prior to the emergence of the Muslim community. When the Prophet took to preaching Islam publicly, it evoked the ire of the Quraysh chiefs which shook the foundation of the Muslim community. In the first phase of preaching many Muslim groups had emerged in and around Makkah. It was no longer possible to obliterate them altogether. In number they were formidable and in terms of their resources and conviction too, they were too firm to be removed. Islam had spread in Arabia in the three year long phase of preaching privately.19
After this private phase, there was a switch over to making the call publicly. It led to the inevitable opposition. However, Muslims, by then, were able to withstand the hostility. As a result of public preaching, new dimensions were added. The message of Islam reached every part of the Arabian Peninsula. Rather, it moved into even foreign lands. This ten year long phase of public preaching in Makkah stands out as the golden period in terms of quantity and quality, efficacy and deep rooted results.
Settlement of New Muslims in a Safe Area
This consideration was central to the Prophet’s strategy that whenever he realized that new Muslims would not be able to maintain their faith in their tribe or region, he would settle them in a safe area. They were settled mostly in Makkah or other areas. In so doing, he resorted to the traditional Arab practices of extending protection and amnesty or agreement. The weaker individuals or sections were placed in the custody of a Makkan family while those of strong descent were made allies of an Arab family. His objective was to place new Muslims in a safe ambience, away from hostility and such forces that attacked their faith. Further discussion on this issue follows in the chapter on the construction of the society.20
The Prophet (peace be upon him) followed all the prevailing norms and practices in preaching Islam. The following are some of the most important ones adopted in the Makkan phase:
| a. | Reciting the Qur’ān and instructing people who visited him. |
| b. | Joining non-Muslim gatherings and reciting the Qur’ān and instructing them there. |
| c. | Having discussions with the local chiefs with a view to conveying the message of Islam to them. |
| d. | Arranging for meals for his kith and kin and community leaders for teaching them about Islam. |
| e. | Winning people’s good will by presenting them gifts and endearing himself to them. |
| f. | Engaging in public welfare acts for bringing home the excellence of Islam. |
| g. | Bringing them closer to Islam by acts of mutual cooperation and interaction and presenting Islam as the faith of peace and amity. |
| h. | Professing and practising high moral standards in trade and business and social relations for persuading them of the truth of Islam and the moral superiority of Muslims. |
| i. | Removing the objections against Islam and issuing rejoinders to the queries and charges about Islam. |
| j. | Convincing non-Muslim chiefs about the goodness of Islam and persuading them of their own success on accepting Islam.21 |
Right to Practise Faith
The Prophet (peace be upon him) set a glowing example during his Makkan phase on how to live in a non-Muslim majority society while adhering to Islam and its sharʿīah and observing all Islamic commands related to its moral, religious and legal system. Muslims are entitled to profess their faith notwithstanding the opposition and hostility against them. By the same token, non-Muslims are free to follow their faith. ‘For you your faith and for me my faith.’22 That is the standing principle valid for all time and place. No civilized society can dare deny it.23
Performance of Prayer
After the Prophet’s advent and revelation of the Qur’ān, the Prophet (peace be upon him) and all Muslims were obliged to offer prayer. Wuḍū’ (ablution) was prescribed as a prerequisite for prayer. Gabriel instructed the Prophet (peace be upon him) in both of these, a point borne out by ḥadīth and sīrah studies.24Regarding the obligatory duty of prayer Ibn Isḥāq and Ibn Hishām clarify that Gabriel instructed the Prophet (peace be upon him) in prayer and wuḍū’. The latter then taught the same to Khadījah. Prior to his acceptance of Islam, ʿAlī had observed the Prophet (peace be upon him) praying inside the home and asked him about the same. As already noted, at the appointed hours of prayers the Prophet (peace be upon him) and his Companions would go to a valley in Makkah and pray there. We will revert to this point later.
As in the case of preaching, initially the Prophet (peace be upon him) prayed privately at home or at a secluded spot. As Muslims grew into a small group, they went to a Makkan valley and offered prayer there in congregation. The Companions had the standing instruction to pray privately.25 Prior to the night journey only Fajr and ʿAṣr prayers were obligatory. Later on, five obligatory prayers were prescribed. In the Makkan period only two rak‘ahs were prescribed for ʿAṣr prayer. The rationale was not to provoke undue hostility on the part of the opponents.26
Yet the Muslims had the right to worship and pray in their own way which they held very dear. For them it was a religious duty which served as the dividing line between faith and unbelief. This explains when ʿUqbah ibn Abī Muʿīṭ, an utterly hostile Quraysh member sought to prevent Muslims from praying in a valley, a Muslim youth Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ al-Zuhrī took him to task and made him concede his mistake in denying Muslims their basic right. ʿUqbah did try to mobilize the Quraysh chiefs for preventing them from offering prayers. He was, however, reprimanded by them. Thus the non-Muslim dominated society and its chiefs acknowledged this right of the Muslim minority.27
Praying Together
Another wise step taken by the Prophet (peace be upon him) was that at the time of praying together he offered Ẓuhr prayer in the Kaʿbah courtyard inside the Sacred Place of worship.28 The Quraysh also prayed at that hour and did not object to the Prophet’s prayer. According to a report, Muslims initially offered only Ẓuhr and ʿAṣr prayers, the former together with the Quraysh and the latter at a secluded place lest the Quraysh might object. Ẓuhr prayer was one of the remnants of the Abrahamic faith and was performed with all its components by the Quraysh. It may thus be called as the joint prayer of the Makkans. It was a peculiar situation. Some other rituals of the Abrahamic faith were common to the Muslim minority and the Makkan Quraysh. Of these, Ẓuhr prayer was quite marked.
The Prophet (peace be upon him) offered Ẓuhr prayer in congregation. Another rite was the fast on 10th Muḥarram. The same may be said of Ḥajj rituals. Ḥajj was the annual worship of not only the Makkan Quraysh but all Arabs. Under the Prophet’s guidance and leadership Muslims performed pilgrimage according to their capacity. In so doing, however, they observed the dictates of morality and nature and shunned the innovations committed by the Quraysh. They avoided going around the Kaʿbah in a naked state or not staying at ʿArafāt, and returning to Makkah without going there or entering their houses by the back door etc. They shunned these unethical practices as a matter of principle.29 This establishes the principle that in a multi-faith society the Muslim minority may join festivals and rituals of other faith, provided these do not impair morals.30
Avoiding Polytheism and its Manifestations
On the important issue of social interaction and praying together the Prophet (peace be upon him) laid down the basic principle that Muslims must avoid polytheism and its manifestations. Included amid these are idolatry, making offerings to these, vows for them, and participating in any polytheistic ritual etc. He illustrated this through his practice. It was obligatory for Makkans, the Muslim minority and by extension for all Muslim minorities. They must keep away from polytheistic worship and its rituals. It is the religious duty of Muslims which the majority community cannot take away. It is antithetical to monotheism to make any adjustment with polytheism and bear with it.31
Building and Managing Place of Worship
1. The first place of worship in upper Makkah:
Soon after the revelation of the Qur’ān in the Makkan period, the Prophet (peace be upon him) was asked to offer prayers. Gabriel instructed him in wuḍū’, and purification in that these are prerequisites for prayer. He taught the Prophet (peace be upon him) how to offer prayer and gave him detailed instructions about two rakʿah and four rakʿah prayers, its postures and its beginning and end timings. He told also how to select a place for saying prayer. The first spot where the Prophet (peace be upon him) prayed after receiving Gabriel’s extensive instructions was a corner of the valley in upper Makkah.32
2. The Prophet’s domestic Place of worship:
It emerges from the sīrah that the Prophet (peace be upon him) had selected a spot inside his house for prayer. Soon after accepting Islam Khadījah started praying as the Prophet (peace be upon him) led prayers. A little later, ʿAlī joined the Prophet’s prayer. It was the beginning of congregational prayer and of the place of worship inside the house. Reports clearly indicate that the Prophet (peace be upon him) offered prayers inside his house. He directed Khadījah and ʿAlī how to purify and do wuḍū’. It was again he who identified qiblah. Ibn Isḥāq reports that three Quraysh chiefs – Abū Sufyān ibn Ḥarb, Abū Jahl ibn Hishām al-Makhzūmī and al-Akhnas ibn Shurayq al-Thaqafī went out at night separately to listen to the Prophet’s recitation of the Qur’ān while hiding themselves. They did so near the Prophet’s domestic place of worship. For three nights they listened to him.33 Ibn Isḥāq further reports that when the Prophet (peace be upon him) used to pray inside his house, mischievous neighbours poured rubbish on him. For avoiding this he put up a stone and he prayed beneath it.34 According to Balādhurī, Saʿīd ibn Zayd, son of Qurayshī Ḥanīf Zayd ibn Nufayl and brother-in-law of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, reports that Muslims used to pray either behind closed doors or in a far-off Makkan valley.
3. The Prophet’s place of worship in Minā:
Regarding ʿAfīf al-Kindī’s acceptance of Islam it is reported that the Prophet, (peace be upon him) Khadījah and ʿAlī prayed in Minā and that he learnt about religious issues from Ibn ʿAbbās.35
4. Places of worship in Makkan valleys:
In the early Makkan period the Prophet’s other place of worship was in a Makkan valley. For Ibn Isḥāq reports: As the time of prayer approached, he would go to a valley. He was accompanied by ʿAlī who joined him without letting his father Abū Ṭālib know about it. He hid it from other leading members of the community. Both prayed there and returned at dusk. They did so as long as Allah willed it.36 In the above quoted report about Saʿīd ibn Zayd and other reports there is reference to places of worship in valleys.
The third person to join the prayer in congregation was Zayd ibn Ḥārithah, the Prophet’s freed slave. According to Ibn Isḥāq he was next to ʿAlī in accepting Islam and offering prayers.37 Some reports indicate that the next persons to join were Abū Bakr and Bilāl being the fourth and fifth persons respectively who offered prayers led by the Prophet (peace be upon him) in Makkan valleys. Later on, other Muslims joined the congregational prayer in Makkan valleys at the appointed hours.38
5. Nakhlah place of worship:
As already noted in Ibn Isḥāq’s report that Abū Ṭālib had expressed his astonishment when he saw his son ʿAlī joining the Prophet (peace be upon him) in prayer. He asked about the prayer and the new faith. On coming to know the details he let his son pray and believe in Islam. However, he refused to accept Islam, saying that he would not abandon his ancestral faith at any cost. Al-Suhaylī makes two points about this report by Ibn Isḥāq and Ibn Hishām: (i) It was at Nakhlah that ʿAlī had prayed along with the Prophet (peace be upon him) and (ii) the next point is related to a posture of prayer, as one raises his buttocks.39 According to the editor and scholar, many places were known by the name of Nakhlah. One was Nakhlah Maḥmūd, in the vicinity of Makkah in Ḥijāz, which abounded in date-palm trees. Then there was Nakhlah Shāmiyyah located at Dhāt Araq. More importantly, it was the territory of Banū Saʿd ibn Bakr, the foster family of the Prophet. (peace be upon him) Nakhlah Yamāniyyah was a distant valley with a place of worship associated with the Prophet (peace be upon him).
6. The Prophet’s places of worship on Makkah and Ṭā’if highway:
On his return from Ṭā’if the Prophet (peace be upon him) offered prayers at various spots which were known as the Prophet’s places of worship.
7. Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq’s place of worship at home:
Ibn Isḥāq reports that Abū Bakr had built a place of worship near his house in the locality of Banū Jumaḥand prayed there. Being a tender-hearted person he cried when he recited the Qur’ān. It moved greatly children, slaves and women, drawing them towards Islam. The Quraysh chiefs complained to the Aḥābīsh leader Ibn al-Daghnah who had extended protection to Abū Bakr, that Abū Bakr hurt their family members. Ibn al-Daghnah asked Abū Bakr to shut the place of worship and do inside his house whatever he wished. The latter, however, declined to do so and returned his protection deal. This place of worship lasted for a long time.40 The above report is cited by Imām al-Zuhrī on ʿĀ’ishah’s authority with reference to ʿUrwah. Moreover, the reference to Abū Bakr’s place of worship features also in Bukhārī’s Kitāb Manāqib al-Anṣār, Bāb Hijrat al-Nabīy wa Asḥābihī ilā al-Madīnah.41 This report too, is on ʿUrwah ibn Zubayr’s authority.)
8. Other Makkan places of worship located in houses:
It is in order to speculate, irrespective of the availability of reports or otherwise, that many Muslims must have built places of worship, like Abū Bakr, in the yard of their houses and offered prayers there. It is stated in the ḥadīth on the night journey that the Prophet (peace be upon him) had offered ʿIshā’ near the house of Umm Hānī bint Abī Ṭālib al-Hāshīmī. The latter too, had prayed.42
ʿAmmār’s place of worship: Balādhurī has recounted some reports about the places of worship erected by Makkan Muslims in and around their houses, which confirm the above speculation. There are two reports about ʿAmmār ibn Yāsir al-Madhḥijī: (i) He was the first Makkan to set up his own place of worship and pray in it and (ii) His was the first to erect a place of worship in a house.43
Places of Worship outside Makkah
Wherever Muslims lived outside Makkah, they had their places of worship in houses. At some places, there was more than one place of worship in that the Muslims there could not be accommodated in a single place of worship.
1. Place of worship of Ghifār and Aslam:
According to reports, Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī led his people in prayer. There is a variant report, however, stating that Aymā’ ibn Ruḥḍah led the prayers in that he was the tribal chief, though he had accepted Islam at a later date.44 Although places of worship are not specifically mentioned in these reports, it is certain that there were places of worship of different groups within the tribe.
2. ʿAbd al-Qays place of worship in Bahrain:
The ʿAbd al-Qays tribe of Bahrain had built its places of worship. Of these one was the central place of worship of Jawashi built in the Makkan period. This was the second such place of worship, next to the Prophet’s place of worship in which Friday prayer was offered.45 The earliest Muslim of their tribe, Ashajj and his friends had accomplished this.46
3. Place of worship in Madīnah during the Makkan phase:
It is a historical fact that some places of worship were built in this period in Madīnah. About early Madīnan Muslims it is stated that under the leadership of Asʿad ibn Zurārah al-Khazrajī they prayed at a place owned by Ḥarrah of Banū Bayāḍah, known as Naqīʿ al-Khadamāt. Forty persons joined prayers there.47 As their number grew places of worship were built by their families and tribes, generally in their courtyards in which prayers were offered on a regular basis.48 Ibn Ḥajar clarifies that some places of worship predated the Qubā’ place of worship. He cites Jābir’s report to the effect that Muslims had built places of worship a few years before the Prophet’s arrival and they used to offer congregational Prayers there.49 According to Balādhurī, the number of these places of worship was nine which had gone up later.
Education and Training of Muslims
After the commencement of the Qur’ānic revelation in the Makkan period arrangements were made for educating and training new Muslims among the Quraysh and Makkans. The Prophet (peace be upon him) was the unlettered teacher. Although he did not have a teacher, he was the supreme teacher. This education system was based essentially on comprehending, memorizing and interpreting Qur’ānic verses and this continued throughout the Makkan period. The Qur’ānic passages revealed by then were scribed and preserved. Many Companions had the privilege of being the scribes of the Qur’ān. Instructions were issued about such religious duties as bodily purification, wuḍū’, prayer rituals and postures, morals and manners of spiritual development. There was an extensive syllabus for educating and training Makkan Muslims which was followed through the period.50
For imparting training to out stationed new Muslims a shorter syllabus was in place, lasting from a week to two months. They could not stay in Makkah for long and called on the Prophet (peace be upon him) for a limited period. They were trained soon after their acceptance of Islam. They were not allowed by the Prophet (peace be upon him) to settle down in Makkah. They were taught Qur’ānic sūrahs, basic teachings of Islam and other important religious duties which sufficed for their leading life as Muslims. The following Companions were sent back to their respective areas after receiving the above training – Abū Dharr al-Ghifārī, Zammām ibn Thaʿlabah al-Azdī, Ashajj ʿAbd al-Qaysī, Abū Mūsā al-Ashʿarī, Ṭufayl ibn ʿAmr al-Dawsī, ʿAmr ibn ʿAbasah, Ḍamād al-Azdī, Juʿl ibn Surāqah al-Ḍamrī and several others. Apart from the Prophet, (peace be upon him) many Companions were associated with this training programme. Among them were Abū Bakr, ʿUmar, ʿUthmān, Khabbāb ibn al-Arat al-Tamīmī, Muṣʿab ibn ʿUmayr al-ʿAbdarī and ʿAmr ibn Umm Maktūm al-ʿĀmirī. There were others too, engaged in it.51
Both the local and out stationed Muslims had the privilege to call on at their convenience the great teacher, the Prophet (peace be upon him) and visit the headquarters of their faith, Makkah, for learning about their faith, culture and morals. They maintained close contact with the Prophet (peace be upon him) through their emissaries, caravans and letters. The latter responded to their letters and queries.52
Organization of Centres: Makkan Centres
The Prophet (peace be upon him) set up several centres for the training of Makkan and out stationed new Muslims. His blessed house, the Kaʿbah courtyard, and parts of the sacred place of worship were some of these centres. There was the special centre, Dār al-Arqam. Companions’ houses also served as training centres. The Prophet (peace be upon him) was an outstanding and constant source of guidance yet some centres were set up for imparting the training in an organized manner.53
The House of the Prophet’s Family
Many women and men were trained in Islam at the Prophet’s house. It helped them embrace Islam and learn about the Qur’ān, sunnah and articles of faith. The Prophet’s first wife Khadījah bint Khuwaylid al-Asadiyyah, the Prophet’s daughters, and all those associated with his household such as slaves and his relatives received the training there. Among others were Zayd ibn Ḥārithah and his wife Umm Ayman, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and many freed slaves of the family. Some members of Banū Hāshim, for example, Jaʿfar and Asmā’ bint ʿUmays learnt Islam there. Among the Prophet’s friends Abū Bakr accepted Islam there and had his basic training.54
Companions’ Houses
Abū Bakr’s house: At a later date Abū Bakr’s house turned into a training centre. For the Prophet (peace be upon him) visited it every day and consulted Abū Bakr. The latter’s daughters and son had received their training in the same house. For example, the house of ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb’s sister Fāṭimah and his brother-in-law Saʿīd ibn Zayd was a training centre where Khabbāb ibn al-Arat taught the Qur’ān.55 Some houses of Makkan new Muslims performed the same role. These were many in number. Interestingly, even some houses of sympathetic non-Muslims served the same purpose. One cannot deny in this context the significance of the houses of Abū Ṭālib and other relatives of the Prophet (peace be upon him). At Abū Ṭālib’s house the Prophet (peace be upon him) had been brought up. It was his refuge. It may be regarded as the consultative assembly of Muslims in that the Prophet had discussion there with the Quraysh chiefs on Islam. The Prophet utilized this house for preaching Islam. A public call to Islam was made from a house when, at divine directive, the Prophet (peace be upon him) invited forty-five members of BanūʿAbd Manāf and presented before them the message of Islam.56
The Courtyard of the Sacred Place of Worship
The Kaʿbah had a large courtyard. Since early days the Quraysh chiefs had their meetings there. The Prophet (peace be upon him) fully utilized this tradition and set apart a spot there for holding meetings on Islam. The Quraysh chiefs recognized this right of his, for he was a respectable, trustworthy person and the leader of a particular group. Reports indicate that he was seated there at different hours, instructing Muslims in the Qur’ān, sunnah, morals and manners and introduced Islam to non-Muslims. The Quraysh chiefs met him there and had discussions with him on Islam. Out stationed persons called on him there for making enquiries about Islam. He received foreign delegations there as well. It may be therefore legitimately called the Prophet’s meeting place, no less in significance than the Quraysh’s. It was recognized so by the Quraysh chiefs.57
Valleys, Mountains and Caves of Makkah
In the Makkan period the valley, mountain passes and caves of Makkah too, served as Islamic centres. We have already noted how these were utilized for offering prayers. These did play an important role. It was from the height of Mount Ṣafāthat the Prophet (peace be upon him) made the first public call to all the tribes of the Quraysh and Makkah to accept Islam.58 The sending down of divine revelation is obviously an illustrious aspect of the Prophet’s career. Many sūrahs and verses were sent down at these valleys or caves. The Prophet (peace be upon him) met Gabriel and angels there. He was granted many divine commands at these spots. He performed many important social, religious and cultural duties there. It was at the valley of Abī Ṭālib that he had suffered persecution. For three years it served as the Islamic centre. He received some delegations there in private, for example, his pledge with Aws and Khazraj of Madīnah. These agreements changed the course of events.
Ibn Saʿd narrates the following significant report: On the day the Prophet (peace be upon him) addressed the Quraysh at Mount Ṣafā, he did not return home until evening. This upset his loving uncle, Abū Ṭālib who went out along with some youth looking for him. On the way they met Zayd ibn Ḥārithah who informed them that the Prophet (peace be upon him) was engaged in conversation with his Companions at a house near Ṣafā.59
The Islamic Centre of Dār al-Arqam
The Islamic centre of Dār al-Arqam occupies great importance in the history of Islam and the Prophet’s mission. Its account is related at length in primary sources. Recent biographers of the Prophet (peace be upon him) have accordingly highlighted its role, to the exclusion of other Islamic centres of Makkah. Undoubtedly Dār al-Arqam played its unique role in the history of Islam.
