Читать книгу The Story of Lingerie - Muriel Barbier - Страница 6

Albert Wyndham, The Corset, c. 1925. Silver print, 23.6 × 17.5 cm. Private collection.

François Gérard, Portrait of Juliette Récamier, 1805. Oil on canvas, 225 × 148 cm. Musée Carnavalet, Paris.

Each era develops its own aesthetic idea that replaces the previous one. Underwear plays a fundamental role in creating a fashionable silhouette. Changing shape is based on integral points in clothing: shoulders, waist, bust and hips.

In ancient times, a draped form covered the body and outlined one’s figure. This was the case in Egypt where underwear did not exist and the body was naked under the tunic. Slaves, dancers and musicians were entirely naked, which marked the difference in status between themselves and their masters who wore translucent tunics. Even though an open tradition existed in classical and Hellenistic Greece concerning clothing and draping, the female form was disguised with straps that flattened the bust and hips. The figure was ruled by androgyny[6]. Hellenistic women appeared completely draped and their femininity disappeared under the panels of their robes. Roman civilisation also fought against curves. In an exclusively male world where women had no role, they were forbidden from showing any specific body characteristics. Certain doctors even proposed treatment to prevent the bust developing too much: Dioscoride[7] advised applying powdered Naxos stone to the breasts; Pline[8] suggested scissor-grinder’s mud, and Ovid[9] recommended a poultice of white bread soaked in milk. There is no evidence that these magic potions were effective, but their existence does show a certain disdain for curves and soft shapes as well as a desire to disguise the female form.

In the Middle Ages the figure was slim although the waist was beginning to be defined. During the 14th and 15th centuries it was important to be slender. This was helped by adjusted underwear and, in particular, a surcoat which flattened the breasts, accentuated the curve of the hip and showed off the belly. The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the great Plague epidemics and a round belly and visible belly button were appreciated as a mark of fertility and a sign of promise for a depopulated Europe. The English poet John Gower (1325–1403) mentions this taste for women with a prominent belly in these terms: “Hee seeth hir shape forthwith all / Hir body round, hir middle small.[10]“

The strict confinement obtained with interior boning which compresses and rules the body is in opposition to these supple clothes of olden times is.

European 16th century clothing is marked by a certain uprightness influenced by Spain. The farthingale was a garment which was designed to make skirts more voluminous. It was adopted in England in 1550 and it became all the rage in 1590. In Spain, it did not disappear until 1625. The farthingale gave volume to the hips, accentuated the belly and demarcated the curve of the body. Underneath, women wore bloomers which were sometimes “deceptive” (padded) that shaped thighs and buttocks and increased the volume of skirts. The bust was shaped like a funnel, held rigidly by the basque which compressed the waist and opened up towards the shoulders.

In the 17th century, the female bust regained its round shape and was accentuated by stays up to the top of the torso tightly laced to the waist. Around 1670, the bust lengthened as the stays reached further up the front and the back of the waist. In the 18th century stays were worn very early by young girls and they reached even higher up the back. At the end of the 18th century certain women cheated by reverting to false breasts hidden in their stays.

Felipe de Llano, Infante Isabelle Claire Eugénie, 1584. Oil on canvas, Museo del Prado, Madrid.

The Flagellation of the Initiated and the Dancer, 2nd-beginning of the 1st century BC. Fresco, Villa of Mysteries, Pompeii.

Picture from the Royal Throne of Tutankhamen representing the young pharaoh and his wife in a translucent tunic, 18th dynasty, 1350–1340 BC. Wood, gold, coloured glass, semi-precious stones. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

The 18th century saw a definitive end to the farthingale when the fashion for flowing dresses arrived. Panniers shaped the skirts, following rapidly evolving trends. The panniers of 1718 were quite rounded, and became oval around 1725, remaining this way until 1730. Later, they took on a multitude of forms including the elbow pannier which stretched out a long way to the sides. After 1740, each side of the skirt had a pair of small panniers which gave it a flattened shape from the front and back but a very wide aspect from the front. At the end of the 18th century, panniers were replaced by the bustle worn behind and which improved or enhanced existing curves. From 1770 onwards, there was some contemporary criticism of stays, including from Jean-Jacques Rousseau who advocated a return to simplicity and nature. Other critics, such as Bonnaud in the 1770s La Dégradation de l’espèce humaine par l’usage du corps à baleine (“The Degradation of the Human Race by the Use of Stays”), launched real medical and educational “crusades”. Nothing could be done: a small waist, large skirt and generous bust remained the flavour of the day. Nevertheless, fashion evolved towards a return of the slim figure, and the pannier gave way to the bustle which, in turn, gradually disappeared. The result of this revolution was a new slender fashion. It started in France, introduced by the “Merveilleuses” (“The Marvels”) like Mme Récamier and Mme Tallien. This long, straight silhouette conquered England following the emigration of Rose Bertin after the French Revolution. With the return of the Greek tunic, the first fashion revival in history was recorded. The silhouette was long and straight with a high bust. But this did not mean that underwear disappeared for those who were not built like fashion plates. In 1800 the corset was still necessary to disguise too ample curves: the best-known corset makers were Lacroix and Furet. During the first Empire, the fashion for widely spaced breasts was launched by Louis Hippolyte Leroy and made corset-wearing indispensable. The “Ninon” was padded to give opulence to the body and reached to the waist.

Woman’s underwear. Fine linen shift; red silk corset with damask and side hoops, pink striped linen. England, Mid 18th century, c. 1770–1780 and 1778, Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Jean-Honoré Fragonard, The Swing, 1766. Oil on canvas, 81 × 65 cm. Wallace Collection, London.

Distribution of panniers from around the world by Mie Margot, in the Paris area, 1735. Engraving, 11.5 × 14 cm. Maciet Collection, Bibliothèque des Arts décoratifs, Paris.

It marked a return to the voluptuous and fertile womanhood desired by Empire politics. The “divorce corset”, which separated the breasts, appeared in 1816 and followed the trend for wide-apart breasts. The waist returned to its natural place. A romantic woman would have her waist defined by a laced corset; she would wear a flared skirt in a wide bell shape which was supported by a crinoline, and she would have boned, bouffant sleeves. Drop shoulders accentuated by low inserted armholes were popular. The crinoline was really a large bell shape, rounded at the bottom and slightly curved at the back. After 1860 the back became much longer and gave the impression of a large corolla. But after 1868, as a reaction to these excesses, the crinoline was reduced to a simple cone which only appeared behind the costume. Around 1865–1870, silhouettes became less voluminous: the “Parisian bustle” accentuated the curve of the body and allowed the folds of the skirt to be trained behind. The front was very flat due to high corsets restraining the bust. These cramped the waist and gave the figure an hourglass shape. This gave birth to great debates concerning the benefits and disadvantages of corsets[11] which in turn led to a far-reaching debate on the injustice of the female condition. Some protagonists, such as Amalia Bloomer (an American journalist), attempted to introduce practical clothing made up of a short tunic worn over trousers, but it was judged to be ridiculous. Female clothing continued to accentuate curves. In the 1880s the front of the silhouette became more and more visible due to corsets with long metallic stiffeners that flattened the belly and compressed the breasts and hips. The woman of 1880–1905 underwent physical distortion to achieve an “S”-shaped figure. Her chest was pushed out in front while hips and buttocks were pushed out behind. The bust was low, full and with no division between the breasts which made them very obvious, an effect sometimes accentuated by false breasts made of chamois leather, quilted satin or rubber. The Parisian bustle lifted the buttocks and accentuated the curve of the hip. This new curvy silhouette is reflected in Art Nouveau lines.

Charles Vernier, Too much and too little. Print, Charivari, 1855. Musée Galliera, Paris.

In the face of this new, sinuous silhouette, new forms of corsets revealing the thorax made their appearance, like those designed by Doctor Franz Glénard and Mme Gaches-Sarraute (a corset-maker with a medical background). They supported the abdomen without compressing it and let the chest and diaphragm breathe. This idea was continued by the appearance of Anglo-Saxon anti-corset leagues that aimed at making clothing more practical. Eventually, the authorities in several countries opposed the use of the corset.[12] This fight against the corset (restricting women’s bodies had long been associated with maintaining tradition) was echoed in the English Suffragette movement that campaigned to give women more rights.

The “S” line was less popular after 1907 and simpler silhouettes took over. Figures took on a more Empire shape with high waists, flattened busts and narrow hips, making a woman look like a tube. This new fashion marked the end of lacing in order to reduce the waist, but it needed the hips and buttocks to be flattened and thus necessitated wearing a corset low on the hips with a flat, rigid front. The bust was shaped due to the invention of the brassiere (bra)[13]. Slenderness was still all the rage, as confirmed by Vogue in 1922: “the pursuit of slimness is one of the chief labours of the modern woman”[14]. This liberty of the body was encouraged in shows in which the artists’ bodies performed freely on stage. These shows were very popular and included the Russian Ballet which performed at the Châtelet Theatre in Paris in 1909 and the performances of the dancer Isadora Duncan. The fashion designers Paul Poiret, Madeleine Vionnet and Nicole Groult were aware of these developments and helped suppress sinuous figure shapes. These innovations were taking place at the same time as the new craze for Latin-American dances (such as the Tango and the Charleston) that required freedom of body movement. In addition, the emergence of the middle class with its demand for more functional dress for the purpose of work contributed to simpler shapes. The First World War simplified these shapes even more and ruled out volume.

Charles Vernier, The utility of crinoline. Print, Charivari, 1855. Musée Galliera.

The Thomson American Cage, 1862. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Exhibition Room of Prints, Oa 20, Paris.

Underskirt with bustle, 1857. “Le Parisien”. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Exhibiton Room of Prints, Oa 20, Paris.

Farthingale Slip, 1863. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Exhibtion Room of Prints, Oa 20.

Nevertheless, only the intrepid and the slimmest abandoned the corset: as for the others, their use of the garment was reduced and indiscernible. Women wore dresses which reached to the knee and did not accentuate bust or waist. In the 1920s, there was no question of having a full bust. Like the Romans, women wore bodices or long bras with no relief which flattened the breasts.

At the end of the decade, curves began to return: the bust was defined and accentuated and had to be supported by boning. Kestos, for example, launched the new idea of the bra as a non-restrictive control garment, because any corsetry that was still worn had to be less restrictive. The human anatomy was beginning to be understood better and corsetry started to follow the natural lines of the body. In Australia, the house of Berlei ordered the first anthropometrical study which was carried out by two Sydney University professors and which defined five types of women showing differing morphology.

Warner made innovations in cup measurements with the sizes A, B, C and D. The “Garçonne” (“Tomboy”) became fashionable at the beginning of the 1930s. Manufacturers tried to respect the diversity of figures by offering a large choice of sizes. The pre-Second World War high bust appeared in 1939 supported by bras and corsets with round and pointed cups. After 1935, padded cups were introduced to enhance small busts and three years later the underwired bra gave the bust more curves. The small waist also made a comeback assisted by the girdle. The woman of 1940 was thin but with rounded hips and a pointed, curvy bust. She had help from a new type of bra with overstitched cups and often reinforced cones. During the 1940s the bust rose with the fashion of the pullover which clung to the torso. In order to have a small waist and flat belly, the waspie was introduced by Marcel Rochas.

Crinoline Petticoat, c. 1865. White cotton, wicker frame. Musée Galliera, Paris. Inv. 003.75.X.

Underskirt with bustle (also called “crayfish tail”), 1875–80. White stitched cotton. Musée Galliera, Paris. Inv. 2003.73.X.

Bustles and Corsets. Illustration from the Winter Fashion album. Commercial catalogues of the Grands Magasins du Louvre, 1876–1877. Musée Galliera, Paris.

Roussel girdle model no. 860, especially designed to reduce the hips and bust.

Bra shown at the Decorative Arts Exhibition in 1925. Embroided feather, lace, cotton cloth and silk satin. Don Andreeff, Musée Galliera, Paris. Inv. 1947.49.1.

Front cover of Jeanne de Charme, c. 1935. 17 × 12.6 cm. Private collection, Paris.

This was the “New Look” – a silhouette created by Christian Dior in 1947, with full skirts, wasp-waist and a full bust. At the beginning of the 1950s, the figure lengthened, the breasts were high up, the bust was smaller and a flat stomach was accentuated. Corsetry and padding were necessary. Journalists wrote about the benefits of a healthy diet and exercise as well as good corsetry. In 1950 the bust was oversized following the fashion for “zeppelin” or very full breasts and was obtained by wearing an overstitched bra. The image was popularised by actresses such as Anita Ekberg, Gina Lollobrigida, Sophia Loren, Jane Mansfield, Marilyn Monroe and Jane Russell. Manufacturers such as Marcel Carlier, Carles Krafft, Jessos, Scandale and Star designed underwired corsetry to enhance the “flower woman”.

In the 1960s the female form followed the changes of the day by being liberated. The fashion was for gamine breasts, narrow hips and extreme slenderness. This glorification of youth was only generalised after 1965 when André Courrèges’ collection showed androgynous shapes and modern woman at ease with her body. Underwear, particularly briefs, followed the line of the body. As a result of the liberation movements of 1968 and Women’s Libbers who burnt their bras, at the end of the 1960s, breasts were emancipated under form-hugging sweaters and Indian tunics: complex underwear sets gave way to almost nothing. The fashion was for leggy, small-breasted women like Jane Birkin or the model Twiggy. After the hippie trend, fashion became more sophisticated and feminine again. There was an obsession with slimming and body-toning to enhance firmness. Gym and aerobics were in vogue. 1980s women exchanged briefs, girdles and corsets for weight-training and hunger. Support came from the inside: women created their own corsets. At the same time breasts became ample and firm. This fashion for a small waist, toned buttocks and ample bust gave a feminine shape that called for underwired bras for those “under endowed by nature”. At the end of the 20th century an ambiguous silhouette began to appear. It was extremely tall and slim, with narrow hips but a generous bust. It can be summed up as a woman who is simultaneously gamine and sensual, an effect which is hard to reproduce and which implies measures from draconian diets to padded bras, if not cosmetic surgery.

Damart nightie, feminine underwear.

Wonderbra advertisement.