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1 1. For overviews of data and capital(ism), see Jathan Sadowski, ‘When Data Is Capital: Datafication, Accumulation, and Extraction’, Big Data & Society 6, no. 1 (1 January 2019); María Soledad Segura and Silvio Waisbord, ‘Between Data Capitalism and Data Citizenship’, Television & New Media 20, no. 4 (13 March 2019); Nick Srnicek, Platform Capitalism (Cambridge: Polity, 2016); Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (London: Profile Books, 2019).

2 2. See ‘The Enunciative Function’ in Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge (New York, NY: Routledge, 2002/1969), 99–119.

3 3. Karin Van Es and Mirko Tobias Schafer, eds., The Datafied Society: Studying Culture Through Data (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2017); José van Dijck, ‘Datafication, Dataism and Dataveillance: Big Data between Scientific Paradigm and Ideology’, Surveillance & Society 12, no. 2 (9 May 2014); Viktor Mayer-Schonberger and Kenneth Cukier, Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work and Think (London: John Murray, 2013), 73–97.

4 4. See Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015); Nick Seaver, ‘Algorithms as Culture: Some Tactics for the Ethnography of Algorithmic Systems’, Big Data & Society 4, no. 2 (1 December 2017); Taina Bucher, If … Then: Algorithmic Power and Politics (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2018).

5 5. See ‘Datafication’ in Mayer-Schonberger and Cukier, Big Data, 73–97.

6 6. It does not receive attention in any of the major historical studies of facts, numbers, statistics, political arithmetic or indeed, data. See Mary Poovey, A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society, 2nd edition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1998); Alain Desrosières, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Ian Hacking, The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas About Probability Induction and Statistical Inference, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Theodore M. Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986); Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life, new edition (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Daniel Rosenberg, ‘Data before the Fact’, in ‘Raw Data’ Is an Oxymoron, ed. Lisa Gitelman (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2013).

7 7. Mark Prigg, ‘The iPM: David Cameron Testing “Number 10 Dashboard” iPad App to Help Him Run the Country’, Mail Online, 8 November 2012, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2229910/David-Cameron-testing-Number-10-Dashboard-iPad-app-help-run-country.html.

8 8. Prigg, ‘iPM’.

9 9. Charles Arthur, ‘David Cameron Tests Real-Time Economic Data App on iPad’, The Guardian, 8 November 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2012/nov/08/david-cameron-tests-data-app.

10 10. Brookings Institution, ‘Janet Yellen’s Dashboard’, Brookings (blog), 10 June 2014, https://www.brookings.edu/interactives/janet-yellens-dashboard.

11 11. Alper Sarikaya et al., ‘What Do We Talk About When We Talk About Dashboards?’, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 25, no. 1 (January 2019).

12 12. Stephen Few, Information Dashboard Design: The Effective Visual Communication of Data. Cambridge, MA: O’Reilly Media, 2006, xi.

13 13. Steve Wexler, Jeffrey Shaffer and Andy Cotgreave, The Big Book of Dashboards: Visualizing Your Data Using Real-World Business Scenarios (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2017), xiv.

14 14. Of course, I do not presume that the dashboard is solely responsible for this idea.

15 15. Rob Kitchin, The Data Revolution: Big Data, Open Data, Data Infrastructures and Their Consequences (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014).

16 16. Jay David Bolter and Richard Grusin, Remediation: Understanding New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999); Lev Manovich, The Language of New Media (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001).

17 17. Lev Manovich, Software Takes Command (New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2013).

18 18. Branden Hookway, Interface (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014).

19 19. J. C. R. Licklider, ‘Man–Computer Symbiosis’, IRE Transactions on Human Factors in Electronics HFE-1, no. 1 (March 1960).

20 20. Douglas C. Engelbart, ‘Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework’, Doug Engelbart Institute, 1962, http://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html.

21 21. These three definitions are found in Angus Stevenson, ed., ‘Format’, in Oxford Dictionary of English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), https://www.oxfordreference.com.

22 22. Adrian Johns, The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making, illustrated edition (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2000); Michael F. Suarez, SJ, and H. R. Woudhuysen, eds. The Book: A Global History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

23 23. This term is repurposed from Tung-Hui Hu, A Prehistory of the Cloud (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2015), xix.

24 24. Jonathan Sterne, MP3: The Meaning of a Format (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012), 17.

25 25. Sterne, MP3, 7.

26 26. Angus Stevenson, ed., ‘Format’, in Oxford Dictionary of English (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), https://www.oxfordreference.com.

27 27. Bruno Latour and Michel Callon, ‘“Thou Shall Not Calculate!” Or How to Symmetricalize Gift and Capital’, trans. Javier Krauel, 1997, http://www.bruno-latour.fr/sites/default/files/downloads/P-71%20CAPITALISME-MAUSS-GB.pdf.

28 28. Latour and Callon, ‘“Thou Shall Not Calculate!”’, 3.

29 29. Latour and Callon, ‘“Thou Shall Not Calculate!”’, 5.

30 30. Latour and Callon, ‘“Thou Shall Not Calculate!”’, 4.

31 31. Bruno Latour, Politics of Nature: How to Bring the Sciences into Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 117.

32 32. Hans Derks, ‘Religion, Capitalism and the Rise of Double-Entry Bookkeeping’, Accounting, Business & Financial History 18, no. 2 (July 2008), 188.

33 33. Poovey does not work with a theory of formats, though she does explicitly refer to DEB as a format. See Poovey, History of the Modern Fact, 60.

34 34. Poovey, History of the Modern Fact, xii.

35 35. Poovey, History of the Modern Fact, 42.

36 36. Poovey, History of the Modern Fact, 42.

37 37. Poovey, History of the Modern Fact, xvii.

38 38. James A. Aho, ‘Rhetoric and the Invention of Double Entry Bookkeeping’, Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric 3, no. 1 (1985), 42.

39 39. I draw the reader’s attention again to the work of James Aho, who some decades ago undertook a close comparative reading of DEB as a work of rhetoric. See Aho, ‘Rhetoric and the Invention of Double Entry Bookkeeping’. See also Bruce G. Carruthers and Wendy Nelson Espeland, ‘Accounting for Rationality: Double-Entry Bookkeeping and the Rhetoric of Economic Rationality’, American Journal of Sociology 97, no. 1 (1991).

40 40. Poovey, History of the Modern Fact, xxv.

41 41. Cited in Eve Chiapello, ‘Accounting and the Birth of the Notion of Capitalism’, Critical Perspectives on Accounting 18, no. 3 (1 March 2007), 264.

42 42. Werner Sombart, ‘Medieval and Modern Commercial Enterprise’, in Enterprise and Secular Change, ed. Frederic C. Lane and Riemersma Jelle (Homewood, IL: Irwin, 1953), 38.

43 43. See Aho, ‘Rhetoric and the Invention of Double Entry Bookkeeping’; Carruthers and Espeland, ‘Accounting for Rationality’.

44 44. Although I have not explored this in any detail, the point is made strongly in the work of James Aho, as well as that of Bruce Carruthers and Wendy Espeland. See Aho, ‘Rhetoric and the Invention of Double Entry Bookkeeping’; Carruthers and Espeland, ‘Accounting for Rationality’.

45 45. See ‘Culture Is Ordinary’ in Raymond Williams, Resources of Hope: Culture, Democracy, Socialism (London: Verso, 1989), 3–18.

46 46. Lev Manovich, Cultural Analytics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2020); Lev Manovich, ‘The Science of Culture? Social Computing, Digital Humanities and Cultural Analytics’, SocArXiv (22 August 2018).

47 47. See Virginia Eubanks, Automating Inequality (New York, NY: St Martin’s Press, 2018); Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York, NY: NYU Press, 2018); Cathy O’Neil, Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy (London: Penguin, 2017); Caroline Criado Perez, Invisible Women: Exposing Data Bias in a World Designed for Men (London: Chatto & Windus, 2019).

48 48. I believe he goes by the name of Waldo in North America.

49 49. Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), 56.

50 50. Williams, Long Revolution, 57.

51 51. Bruno Latour, ‘Technology Is Society Made Durable’, in A Sociology of Monsters: Essays on Power, Technology and Domination, ed. John Law (London: Routledge, 1991).

52 52. Alison Hulme, ‘Following the (Unfollowable) Thing: Methodological Considerations in the Era of High Globalisation’, Cultural Geographies 24, no. 1 (12 May 2016); Arjun Appadurai, ed., The Social Life of Things: Commodities in Cultural Perspective, new edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Ian Cook and Michelle Harrison, ‘Follow the Thing: “West Indian Hot Pepper Sauce”’, Space and Culture 10, no. 1 (1 February 2007); George E. Marcus, ‘Ethnography in/of the World System: The Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography’, Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995).

53 53. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gerd Gigerenzer et al., The Empire of Chance: How Probability Changed Science and Everyday Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Desrosières, Politics of Large Numbers; Hacking, Emergence of Probability; Poovey, History of the Modern Fact; Porter, Rise of Statistical Thinking; Porter, Trust in Numbers; Rosenberg, ‘Data before the Fact’.

54 54. For those interested, see Kent C. Redmond and Thomas M. Smith, From Whirlwind to MITRE: The R&D Story of the SAGE Air Defense Computer (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000); Morton M. Astrahan and John F. Jacobs, ‘History of the Design of the SAGE Computer: The AN/FSQ-7’, Annals of the History of Computing 5, no. 4 (October 1983); David Caminer et al., LEO: The Incredible Story of the World’s First Business Computer (New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1998); Georgina Ferry, A Computer Called LEO: Lyons Tea Shops and the World’s First Office Computer, new edition (London: Harper, 2010); Eden Medina, Cybernetic Revolutionaries: Technology and Politics in Allende’s Chile (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2014).

55 55. Robin de Mourat, Donato Ricci and Bruno Latour. ‘How Does a Format Make a Public?’, in Reassembling Scholarly Communication: Histories, Infrastructures, and Global Politics of Open Access, ed. Martin Paul Eve and Jonathan Gray (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2020), 104.

56 56. N. Katherine Hayles, Unthought: The Power of the Cognitive Nonconscious (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2017).