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1 1. Richard Ned Lebow, The Rise and Fall of Political Orders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), pp. 7–8.

2 2. Tacitus, On the Life and Character of Julius Agricola (AD 98).

3 3. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 24.

4 4. ‘Remarks by President Donald Tusk before the G7 Summit in Charlevoix, Canada’, at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2018/06/08/remarks-by-president-donald-tusk-before-the-g7-summit-in-charlevoix-canada/.

5 5. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977), p. 209.

6 6. Cited in Phillips Payson O’Brien, British and American Naval Power: Politics and Policy, 1900–1936 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998), p. 117.

7 7. Warren Zimmerman, First Great Triumph (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002), p. 476.

8 8. UN Special Rapporteur on Unilateral Coercive Measures, ‘Sanctions on Iran and Cuba Need Phasing Out, Says Expert’, 29 July 2015, at https://news.un.org/en/audio/2015/07/602872. I am grateful to Nicholas Mulder on this point.

9 9. Stephen Kotkin, ‘Why Realism Explains the World’, Foreign Affairs 97:4 (2018), pp. 10–15: p. 10.

10 10. Michael Burke, ‘Biden: “The America I See Does Not Wish to Turn Our Back on the World”’, The Hill, 17 February 2019.

11 11. ‘Democrats and Foreign Policy: There’s Something Happening Here’, The Economist, 4 May 2019.

12 12. Julio Rosas, ‘Joe Biden Says He Wants to Make America Straight Again’, Washington Examiner, 25 April 2019.

13 13. Anne Applebaum, ‘Is This the End of the West as We Know It?’ Washington Post, 4 March 2016; Patrick M. Stewart, ‘Trump and World Order: The Return of Self-Help’, Foreign Affairs 96:2 (March/April 2017), pp. 52–57; James Kirchick, The End of Europe: Dictators, Demagogues, and the Coming Dark Age (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2017).

14 14. ‘Is the Liberal Order in Peril?’ Foreign Affairs (online), n.d., at https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ask-the-experts/liberal-order-peril.

15 15. Statement of Former Swedish Prime Minister Carl Bilt, promoting the Declaration of Principles for Freedom, Prosperity and Peace, at https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/programs/brent-scowcroft-center/fsr-initiative/declaration-of-principles.

16 16. Klaus Schwab, ‘Globalisation 4.0: The Davos 2019 Manifesto’, at https://www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/220862-davos-2019-manifesto-globalization; Adam Tooze, ‘Framing Crashed’, at https://adamtooze.com/2019/02/09/framing-crashed-10-a-new-bretton-woods-and-the-problem-of-economic-order-also-a-reply-to-adler-and-varoufakis/.

17 17. Susan B. Glasser, ‘John McCain’s Funeral Was the Biggest Resistance Gathering Yet’, New Yorker, 1 September 2018; Ishaan Tharoor, ‘Trump, McCain and the Waning of the Liberal Order’, Washington Post, 27 August 2018.

18 18. Charles A. Kupchan, ‘Unpacking Hegemony: The Social Foundations of Hierarchical Order’, in G. John Ikenberry, Power, Order and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), pp. 19–61: pp. 25–27.

19 19. Patrick O’Brien, ‘The Pax Britannica and American Hegemony: Precedent, Antecedent or Just Another History?’, in Patrick O’Brien and Armand Clesse, eds., Two Hegemonies: Britain 1846–1914 and the United States 1941–2001 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), pp. 3–64: pp. 3–4.

20 20. Robert Kagan, The Jungle Grows Back: America and Our Imperilled World (New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2018).

21 21. ‘Why We Should Preserve International Institutions and Order’, New York Times, 23 July 2018.

22 22. ‘Petition: Preserving Alliances’, July 2018, at https://docs.google.com/forms/d/e/1FAIpQLSesHdZWxpp13plS4nkLOSMHv4Dg1jaksBrCC6kWv6OfVAmO5g/viewform.

23 23. Foreign Affairs Select Committee, China and the Rules-Based International System: Sixteenth Report of Session 2017–19 HC 612, 4 April 2019.

24 24. Adam Garfinkle, ‘Parsing the Liberal International Order’, The American Interest, 27 October 2017.

25 25. Centre for American Progress, ‘America Adrift: How the US Foreign Policy Debate Misses What Voters Really Want’, 5 May 2019, at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2019/05/05/469218/america-adrift/; Ruth Igielnik and Kim Parker, ‘Majorities of US Veterans, Public Say the Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan Were Not Worth Fighting’, Pew Research Center, 10 July 2019, at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/07/10/majorities-of-u-s-veterans-public-say-the-wars-in-iraq-and-afghanistan-were-not-worth-fighting/.

26 26. Damir Murasic, ‘Making up Monsters to Destroy: The Illiberal Challenge’, The American Interest 14:5 (2019).

27 27. Perry Anderson, The H-Word: The Peripeteia of Hegemony (London: Verso, 2017), pp. 1–4.

28 28. Joseph Nye, Condoleezza Rice, Nicholas Burns, Leah Bitounis and Jonathon Price, The World Turned Upside Down: Maintaining American Leadership in a Dangerous Age (Aspen, CO: Aspen Institute, 2017); Kurt Campbell, Eric Edelman, Michèle Flournoy, et al., Extending American Power: Strategies to Expand US Engagement in a Competitive World Order (Washington, DC: Centre for a New American Security, May 2016).

29 29. Kenneth P. Vogel, ‘Concerned by Trump, Some Republicans Quietly Align with Democrats’, New York Times, 24 May 2018; see also the American Enterprise Institute and the Centre for American Progress, ‘Partnership in Peril: The Populist Assault on the Transatlantic Community’, at https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/security/reports/2018/07/31/454248/partnership-in-peril/.

30 30. Stephen Wertheim, ‘Return of the Neocons’, New York Review of Books, 2 January 2019.

31 31. Julian Borger, ‘Trump is Building a New Liberal Order, says Pompeo’, Guardian, 4 December 2018; Jeffrey Goldberg, ‘A Senior White House Official Defines the Trump Doctrine: We’re America, Bitch’, The Atlantic, 11 June 2018.

32 32. G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order After Major Wars (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2001); ‘The Plot Against American Foreign Policy: Can the Liberal Order Survive?’ Foreign Affairs 96:3 (2017), pp. 2–9; (with Daniel Deudney), ‘The Nature and Sources of Liberal International Order’, Review of International Studies 25 (1999), pp. 179–196; James Goldgeier, ‘The Misunderstood Roots of Liberal Order, And Why They Matter Again’, Washington Quarterly 41:3 (2018), pp. 7–20; Ivo H. Daalder and James M. Lindsay, Empty Throne: America’s Abdication of Global Leadership (New York: Public Affairs, 2019); Richard N. Haass, ‘Liberal World Order: R.I.P.’, Project Syndicate, 21 March 2018; Robin Niblett, ‘Liberalism in Retreat: The Demise of a Dream’, Foreign Affairs 96:1 (2017), pp. 17–24; Kori Schake, America vs The West: Can the Liberal World Order Be Preserved (Penguin: Lowy Institute Paper, 2019); Eliot A. Cohen, The Big Stick: The Limits of Soft Power and the Necessity of Military Force (New York: Basic Books, 2016); Paul D. Miller, American Power and Liberal Order: A Conservative Internationalist Grand Strategy (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2016); Hal Brands, American Grand Strategy in the Age of Trump (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2017); ‘America’s Global Order Is Worth Fighting For; The Longest Period of Great-Power Peace in Modern History Is Not a “Myth”’, Bloomberg, 14 August, 2018; David H. Petraeus, ‘America Must Stand Tall’, Politico, 7 February 2017; Joseph S. Nye Jr, ‘The Rise and Fall of American Hegemony from Wilson to Trump’, International Affairs 95:1 (2019), pp. 63–80; Robert Kagan, ‘The Twilight of the Liberal World Order’, in Michael O’Hanlon, ed., Big Ideas for America (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2017), pp. 267–75; Edward Luce, ‘The New World Disorder’, Financial Times, 24 June 2017; Bonnie S. Glaser and Gregory Poling, ‘Vanishing Borders in the South China Sea’, Foreign Affairs 97:3 (2018); Daniel Drezner, ‘Who Is to Blame for the State of the Rules-Based International Order?’ Washington Post, 5 June 2018; Gideon Rose, ‘What Obama Gets Right: Keep Calm and Carry the Liberal Order On’, Foreign Affairs 94:5 (2015), pp. 2–12; Marc Champion, ‘International (Dis)Order’, Bloomberg, 26 September 2018; Hans W. Maull, ‘The Once and Future Liberal Order’, Survival 61:2 (2019), pp. 7–32; Michael Fullilove, ‘The Fading of an Aging World Order’, Financial Times, 23 October 2015. A more agnostic account is Rebecca Lissner and Mira Rapp-Hooper, ‘The Liberal Order is More Than a Myth: But It Must Adapt to the New Balance of Power’, Foreign Affairs 97:4 (2018).

33 33. G. John Ikenberry, ‘The End of Liberal Order?’ International Affairs 94:1 (2018), pp. 7–23: p. 9.

34 34. Robert Jervis, ‘International Primacy: Is the Game Worth the Candle?’ International Security 17:4 (1993), pp. 52–67: pp. 52–3.

35 35. Charles L. Glaser, ‘A Flawed Framework: Why the Liberal International Order Framework is Misguided’, International Security 43:4 (2019), pp. 51–87; John Mearsheimer, ‘Bound to Fail: The Rise and Fall of the Liberal World Order’, International Security 43:4 (2019), pp. 7–50; Adam Tooze, ‘Everything You Know About Global Order Is Wrong’, Foreign Policy, 30 January, 2019; George Friedman, ‘The Myth of the Liberal International Order; It’s Dangerous to Pine for a Time That Never Really Was’, Geopolitical Futures, 19 September 2018; Paul Staniland, ‘Misreading the “Liberal Order”: Why We Need New Thinking in American Foreign Policy’, Lawfare, 29 July 2018; Graham Allison, ‘The Truth About the Liberal Order: Why It Didn’t Make the Modern World’, Foreign Affairs 97:4 (2018), pp. 124–133; Amitav Acharya, The End of American World Order (Cambridge: Polity, 2014); Stephen M. Walt, ‘Why I Didn’t Sign Up to Defend the International Order’, Foreign Policy, 1 August 2018; Jeanne Morefield, ‘Trump’s Foreign Policy Isn’t the Problem’, Boston Review, 8 January 2019; Stephen Wertheim, ‘Paeans to the Postwar Order Won’t Save Us’, War on the Rocks, 6 August 2018; John Mueller, ‘An American Global Order? Has the US Been Necessary?’, ISSS–IS Annual Conference, November 2018; Christopher Fettweis, ‘Unipolarity, Hegemony and the New Peace’, Security Studies 26:3 (2017), pp. 423–451; Patrick Porter, A World Imagined: Nostalgia and Liberal Order, CATO Policy Analysis Number 843 (Washington, DC: CATO Institute, June, 2018); Naazneen Barma, Ely Ratner and Steven Weber, ‘The Mythical Liberal Order’, The National Interest 124 (2013), pp. 56–67; Andrew Bacevich, ‘The Global Order Myth’, The American Conservative, 15 June 2017; Brahma Chellany, ‘Mirage of a Rules-Based Order’, Japan Times, 25 July 2016; Michael Brendan Dougherty, ‘The Endless Hysteria about the Liberal World Order’, National Review, 27 March 2018; Adrian Pabst, Liberal World Order and Its Critics (London: Routledge, 2018).

36 36. Naazneen Barma, Ely Ratner and Steven Weber, ‘The Mythical Liberal Order’, The National Interest 124 (2013), pp. 56–67.

37 37. John Glaser, ‘The Amnesia of the US Foreign Policy Establishment’, Free Republic, 15 March 2019; David C. Hendrikson, Republic in Peril: American Empire and the Liberal Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 168.

38 38. Francis Fukuyama, ‘America: The Failed State’, Prospect, January 2017.

39 39. Jake Sullivan, ‘More, Less or Different’, Foreign Affairs 98:1 (2018), pp. 168–175: p. 173; G. John Ikenberry and Daniel Deudney, ‘Liberal World’, Foreign Affairs 97:1 (2018), pp. 16–24: p. 17.

40 40. George Packer, Our Man: Richard Holbrooke and the End of the American Century (New York: Knopf, 2019), p. 5.

41 41. Michael Sherer, ‘Democrats Distance Themselves from Hillary Clinton’s “Backward” Claim’, Washington Post, 13 March 2018.

42 42. Hillary Rodham Clinton, ‘Security and Opportunity for the Twenty-First Century’, Foreign Affairs 86:6 (2007), pp. 1–18: p. 3.

43 43. Marc Trachtenberg, ‘Preventive War and US Foreign Policy’, Security Studies 16:1 (2007), pp. 1–31; William Burr and Jeffrey T. Richelson, ‘Whether to Strangle the Baby in the Cradle’, International Security 25:3 (2000–1), pp. 54–99.

44 44. Max Boot, ‘Nostalgia Isn’t a Foreign Policy’, Commentary, 11 November 2015; ‘The Case for American Empire’, Weekly Standard, 15 October 2001; ‘Why Winning and Losing are Irrelevant in Syria and Afghanistan’, Washington Post, 30 January 2019; The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 2002).

45 45. Blighty, ‘The Vote of Shame’, The Economist, 30 August 2013.

46 46. Damon Linker, ‘Elliot Abrams and the Absurd Paradoxes of American Foreign Policy’, The Week, 15 February 2019.

47 47. Emile Simpson, ‘There’s Nothing Wrong with the Liberal Order That Can’t Be Fixed by What’s Right With It’, Foreign Policy, 7 August 2018.

48 48. G. John Ikenberry and Daniel H. Nexon, ‘Hegemonic Studies 3.0: The Dynamics of Hegemonic Orders’, Security Studies 28:3 (2019), pp. 1–27.

49 49. Walter A. McDougal, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997).

50 50. Daniel H. Nexon and Thomas Wright, ‘What’s at Stake in the American Empire Debate?’ American Political Science Review 101:2 (May 2007), pp. 253–272: p. 266.

51 51. G. John Ikenberry, Liberal Leviathan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 270.

52 52. G. John Ikenberry, Thomas J. Knock, Anne-Marie Slaughter and Tony Smith, The Crisis of American Foreign Policy: Wilsonianism in the Twenty-first Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), p. 10.

53 53. Perry Anderson, American Foreign Policy and Its Thinkers (London: Verso, 2013); Inderjeet Parmar, ‘The US-led Liberal Order: Imperialism By Another Name?’, International Affairs, 94:1 (2018), pp. 151–172.

54 54. Jeanne Morefield, Empires without Imperialism: Anglo-American Decline and the Politics of Deflection (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).