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Through the Lens of Rhetorical Analysis The Audio/Visual Motif in the Apocalypse of John
ОглавлениеREBECCA SKAGGS and THOMAS DOYLE
mjskaggs@aol.com
Patten University
Oakland, California
metanoia1549@sbcglobal.net
The Metanoia Ministry
El Cerrito, California
Introduction
One of the major characteristics of apocalyptic literature is the multifaceted experiences of the seer — audio/visual effects surround him.1 The Apocalypse of John shares this feature but with notable variations. Even without a systematic analysis of the use of the phrases in the text, it is fairly clear that the experiences of sight and sound are particularly significant in the Apocalypse and that the author is using them in a special way. Several questions emerge — how do the audio/visual experiences relate to one another? Is there a pattern which sheds light on what John is trying to convey? In what way does that which is heard add to or interpret what is seen or vice versa? Is John attempting to emphasize something by these phrases? Is he “correcting” ideas, or is he merely showing multiple perspectives of the events?
Some scholars (e.g., Mounce, Ford, and Fiorenza2) do not note any special significance to these constructions, at least they do not remark on them in any specific way. Others, such as Aune,3 discuss the relation of the phrases within particular passages, but not within the book as a whole, and show how the seeing and hearing highlights the contrast of the lion/Lamb imagery to create a composite picture of Christ as the fulfillment of Jewish expectation, as well as the earthly suffering servant.
A number of scholars follow Caird,4 who notes that the hearing is the “inner reality” of the seeing, but he does not elucidate exactly what that means or whether it should be consistently interpreted as such throughout the rest of the text.5 Bauckham6 agrees, at least generally, with Caird to some extent, but only in relation to specific passages. Moyise7 explains that there is a dialectical relation between what John hears and what he sees and this is important for understanding the message of Revelation, but again, he does not discuss how the reader should distinguish between the various uses of these phrases.8 Beale9 also remarks on the interpretation of some of the uses of seeing/hearing, that what John sees is interpreted by what he hears in some passages and vice versa for other passages, but again, his analysis is not comprehensive.
The point here is that although many scholars note the special significance of the use of the seeing/hearing motifs, no one so far has systematically analyzed the variations of the uses and the significance of these for understanding the Apocalypse. We suggest that more attention should be paid to the distinctions in the patterns as they appear throughout the text. A close consideration of the use of this motif throughout the Apocalypse indicates that the author is intentionally using more than one pattern; in fact, there are multiple patterns. The question is: do these variations indicate multiple meanings? Are they merely different ways of saying the same thing? Is there one predominant meaning? Our study will consider these various patterns, and suggest some interpretive possibilities for an understanding of the Apocalypse.
In this study, we have found that there are at least two major discernible patterns (with several variations) that shed light in different ways. We have identified 44 analogues in which seeing/hearing appear. In all but eight of these, the vision is first, followed by the audition. What is “heard” clearly adds to or enhances what is “seen” without the meaning of either being changed. In contrast, there are only eight instances of the hearing preceding the vision. In each of these cases, what is seen more than adds to what is heard; what is heard is reinterpreted by what is seen. The classic example of this is the lion/Lamb imagery in Rev 5, where John hears the lion introduced and then turns to see the sacrificed Lamb. Here, in a passage that we initially explored relative to such audio/visual details,10 what is seen enhances what is heard in order that the readers’ understanding is broadened to include a new perspective.
Methodology
The purpose and intention of the present study is first to enumerate and to systematically analyze the uses of “seeing/hearing” through the entire text of the Apocalypse of John (see Table I) and to construct a table of the data (see Table II), which captures relevant details and should be useful for interpretation. In order to do this, we have used the following methodology:
1. All of the phrases “hearing” and “seeing” are identified in the text. In some cases (so identified), the “hearing” or “seeing” is implicit. Although the activity is clearly indicated, the actual grammatical terms are not used. For example, in Rev 9:1 it is stated that “the fifth angel sounded his trumpet . . . .” This clearly implies that John hears the sound.
2. Since the relation of the seeing/hearing is of interest here, the phrases in Table II are grouped into analogues to highlight their relation:
a. The Primary Analogue. This is the first and more basic reference to that which is seen or heard.
b. The Adjunctive Analogue. This is the second and fuller reference to that which is seen or heard, and thus serves as a modifier
3. Clearly, from our study, two main patterns dominate: see/hear (36 analogues), and hear/see (8 analogues). There are several additional subpatterns which are clearly variations of these. In the variations of Pattern 1, there is no particular interpretive significance to the variations. However, the variations in Pattern 2 heighten the effect of the prophetic component. We have identified these patterns and their variations in Table II below as follows:
Pattern 1: see/hear (13 times)
Variation 1a: see/hear/see (8 times)
Variation 1b: see/hear/see/hear (2)
Variation 1c: see/hear/see/comment (1)
Variation 1d: see/hear/hear (2)
Variation 1e: see/hear/comment (3)
Variation 1f: see/hear/see/hear/comment (1)
Variation 1g: see/see/hear (2)
Variation 1h: see/see/hear/see (1)
Variation 1i: see/see/hear/hear (1)
Variation 1j: see/see/comment (2)
Total Pattern 1 with Variations = 36 times
Pattern 2: hear/see (3 times)
Variation 2a: hear/see/hear (3 times)
Variation 2b: hear/see/hear/comment (1)
Variation 2c: hear/hear/see/hear/comment (1)
Total Pattern 2 with Variations = 8 times
Total Audio/Visual Patterns = 44 times
4. We have considered the eight hearing/seeing texts in light of rhetorical analysis, in particular Edith Humphrey’s study of argumentation embedded in vision-reports.11
Rhetorical Analysis
Recently, scholars such as Carey and Bloomquist etal,12 deSilva,13 and Humphrey14 have shown that the application of rhetorical analysis on apocalyptic texts presents a challenge that proves especially enlightening. In regard to these texts, rhetorical analysis is not a “paint-by-number” procedure, but a “perspective” marked by the assumption that “through textual strategies one may discern persuasive designs.”15
According to deSilva,16 there are two levels of argumentation in the Apocalypse of John: (1) on the basic level, in the use of implicit or explicit enthymemes;17 and, (2) more deeply, through the author’s reference to traditions and precedents known to the audience.
Humphrey agrees that these genres differ from other texts. Although classical rhetorical forms have been somewhat useful for understanding the Apocalypse, it is “characterized by cultural syncretism”; she says that rhetorical analysis of apocalyptic texts should be accompanied by “appreciation of aesthetic, dramatic, and structural devices.”18 By means of literary-rhetorical analysis, Humphrey focuses on a unique form of apocalyptic texts — the vision. These have seldom been examined for their palpable rhetorical power. According to her, in the first-century world, the genre of the vision-report was popular. Sometimes it was used as “demonstatio” and on other occasions it functioned within the argument as an authoritative “trump card.”19
DeSilva also sees the value of argumentation within the visions, but notes that its texture is not as dense as in other kinds of texts in Revelation, since the visions tend to be descriptive of scenes, rather than the recording of speech.20 The task of the rhetorical analyst, then, according to deSilva, is not to analyze the argument as valid or invalid, but is rather to “uncover the argumentation as fully as possible.”21
The important point is that vision-reports are used in different ways, both explicitly and implicitly, and in different points of the argument “to achieve different purposes and effects.”22 Often, the vision (what is seen) is combined with the report (what is heard) “so that the revealing mystery is placed in the context of interpretive word or interpretive word is made visual or enhanced by vision . . . [they] serve a higher purpose . . . for where we find vision-reports, we inevitably find argumentation, either explicit or implicit.”23 In fact, Humphrey notes that “where propositional language (‘word’) dominates, the text tends to be more directly polemical, less ‘open’ in possibilities of interpretation; over against such texts stand more allusive passages in which images dominate, though these are given some direction or interpretation by attached or embellished propositions.”24
Humphrey also shows convincingly that polyvalence prevails in the Apocalypse. Rather than a logical presentation of a case (judicial, deliberative, or epideictic argumentation), there is a combination of argumentation and “evocative symbolism” which deepens and complicates the rhetoric. Hence, the visions “compel” rather than “force” the closure of the argument.25
When considering these eight audio/visual passages throughout Revelation, several questions emerge: what is the best way to uncover the argumentation embedded in the visions? Are the visions themselves part of that argumentation as Humphrey suggests? Are sights or sounds more important? Does the author appear to be using them in different ways? Does it make a difference to the argument if sight or sound dominates the passage? Finally, how should this affect the readers’ understanding?
This study proposes that indeed there is discernable argumentation in the vision-reports in the Apocalypse. As noted earlier, we have identified two significant patterns of sight and sound which enable the argumentation to emerge. It appears that the domination by sight or sound does make a difference, and that an analysis of this pattern, in particular the eight passages where the vision follows the word, does enhance the understanding of the message and intention of the author. In fact, the argument embedded in the visions develops as it progresses through the book, beginning with the vision of Jesus in ch. 1, through the other passages (5:5–6, 9:1–12, 13–19, 11:15–18, 16:1–7, 19:1–21:8) and concludes with the final passage in 21:9–22:5. In each passage, the vision functions along with the “word” to convey the point about the nature of God’s reign and the role judgment plays in it. In fact, the message develops as it progresses through the text until the final passage virtually explodes with almost a complete visionary chapter.
Analysis of the Eight Pertinent Passages
As mentioned above, it is clear that the author of the Apocalypse is intentionally distinguishing between “seeing/hearing” and “hearing/seeing.” When seeing is the primary analogue, the hearing analogue adds to and deepens the information (e.g., the worship scenes of ch. 4 and the seals in ch. 6). In contrast, when hearing is the primary analogue, both scenarios are reinterpreted to convey a new prophetic perspective. The next question that emerges is, what is the new perspective added by the “seeing” analogue? A consideration of each of the passages suggests that the visions provide a prophetic context to what is heard. Argumentation is embedded within each of the visions to emphasize the main points. Further, each passage builds upon each other to create this prophetic scenario. Pattern 2b (hear/see/hear/comment) heightens this prophetic component by means of an additional comment.
Passage 1. Revelation 1:10–16: The Glorified Christ
John hears a loud voice, like a trumpet (the primary analogue); he then sees the vision of Jesus (the adjunctive analogue). He is commissioned by God to transmit the message of the Apocalypse. In fact, John so closely connects the identity of the speaker and the message that he “turns to see the voice,” which gives him the prophetic authority to proceed.26 Aune27 notes that this idea of seeing words echoes rabbinic literature and connotes a revelatory character. We also see a reflection of Old Testament prophets who sometimes refer to “seeing” words (e.g., Isa 2:1; 13:1; Jer 23:18). With this in mind, we can conclude that what is seen enhances the nature of what is heard. The vision provides the rationale for the credibility of the voice and the message in v. 11. The vision of who Jesus is establishes the reason that the message of the voice should be taken into account. Even more than that, by setting the hearing into a prophetic scenario, the vision gives a new perspective which establishes the authoritative source of the prophetic message of the entire Apocalypse.
Passage 2. Revelation 5:5–6: The lion/Lamb
John hears the lion introduced, but sees the Lamb as though sacrificed. Most scholars agree that these verses indicate the strong influence of the imagery of the Lamb upon the lion. As we have argued elsewhere, here the understanding of the Lamb is also impacted by the lion.28 Together, they create a synergy which enhances our understanding of the message of the Apocalypse.29 Humphrey insightfully explains this, “In terms of argumentation, John’s visionary logic is convoluted yet powerful: Rejoice because of your seeming failure; rejoice because of death, for death implies life. The Lamb is a lion, the fugitive is a queen, and the dragon is already judged as he rampages.”30
The credibility of this synergy is established on the basis of the redemptive work of the Lamb — the hymn embedded in the vision provides an interaction between the vision and the rhetoric, the sight and sound so that, “The imagery and rhetoric of the Apocalypse move in two directions at once . . . the boundaries are soft, and so the question of identity [between the lion and the Lamb] is ever present.”31
Passages 3 & 4. Revelation 9: 1–12; 13–21: Two of the Three Woes
In Rev 9, there are 2 separate “hearing/seeing” analogues. John hears the 5th and 6th trumpets corresponding to two of the three “woes.” It is noteworthy that the 1st through 4th trumpets include the motif as “seeing/hearing” whereas the motif in the three woes is “hearing/seeing.” In each of the woes, the trumpet is heard and then the prophetic vision unfolds.
In 9:1–4, the vision that follows the 5th trumpet is of the fallen star, the bottomless pit, and the plague of locusts. These locusts particularly reflect the revelation of God’s judgment in Joel; the vision provides the rationale for God’s prophetic judgment.
In 9:4–12, John hears the admonition to the locusts not to harm “any grass, plant, or tree” and to torture only those who do not have the seal of God. This is the first reference to protection by the seal,32 and recalls the readers to Rev 7 where the angels are commanded to hold back the winds until the 144,000 are sealed by God. Both instances highlight the plan of God to protect the righteous while devastating the wicked.33 Again, in vv. 4–12, the vision places what is “heard” within the prophetic revelation of the final judgments of God.
In 9:13–19, John hears the 6th trumpet, hears the voice from the altar, sees the consequence of the trumpet blast, and hears the number of the troops and then the vision reveals not only the nature of the troops as horses and riders but their function as vehicles of the final judgment. Once again, the vision sets “hearing” into the perspective of the prophetic scenario of God’s final judgments. The prophetic component is heightened further by the author’s comment in vv. 20–21. The main point here is that the hearing/ seeing motif, followed by a comment, in each of the three woes is important: what John sees gives new perspective to what he hears.
It should be noted here, that there is a significant difference between the first four and the last three trumpets. In each case of the sounding of the first four trumpets, the angel is seen, the trumpet implicitly heard; and the consequence of the blast is seen (8: 7, 8, 10, 12). In contrast, the final three trumpets are introduced by an eagle seen (ei]don) and heard (h!kousa), calling out in a loud voice, “woe, woe, woe” (9:13). The blasts of the fifth and sixth trumpets follow immediately, but they exhibit a notably different pattern from the first four, in that the seeing and hearing (implicit, like the first four) is followed in each case by an author’s comment emphasizing the prophetic nature of the event. The 7th trumpet (11:15–19) is followed by an even more extensive passage — the appearance of two “great signs in heaven” (in both cases, w!fqh): the sun-clothed woman and the great red dragon (both in ch. 12).
Passage 5. Revelation 11:15–19: The 7th Trumpet
John hears the sound of the 7th trumpet and the worshippers in heaven, praising God for the coming of his reign. The vision of the Ark of the Covenant immediately follows, situating this passage in the presence of God: the imminent judgment originates from God himself. According to Aune,34 v. 8 juxtaposes the praise for the reign of God with the final judgment. Here, as in the previous worship-visions, the argumentative texture is embedded in the hymns (see 4:11; 5:9–10; 11:15–18; 15:2–4; 19:1–8).35 The vision itself provides the main point: “the kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord and his Christ” (v. 15). The rationale is embedded within the hymn “we give thanks because you have taken your great power and have begun to reign” (v. 17).
Passage 6. Revelation 16:1–7: The First Three Bowls of God’s Wrath
This passage describes the pouring out of the bowls or vials of the first three of the final judgments. In the introduction (v. 1), John hears (h!kousa) the loud voice from the temple commanding the angels to pour out their bowls on the earth. Each angel pours (implicit sight) and the effect (again implicitly seen) is described. After the pouring by the third angel, John hears two voices affirming that God’s judgments are just: first, the angel of the waters (v. 5); second the voice of the altar itself (v. 7). These messages embedded in the hearing/seeing passage make a clear statement about the prophetic nature of the just and true judgments of God.
Passage 7. Revelation 19:1–21:8: God’s Judgment of the Wicked
This set of analogues is unique in that the hearing (the worshippers before the throne at the marriage supper of the Lamb) is followed by an extremely long adjunctive visual analogue — the impact of the reign of God: the white-horse rider wreaks defeat on the beast and his cohorts, Satan is consigned to the Lake of Fire, the wicked are condemned at the final white-throne judgment, and ultimately the New Heaven and New Earth are established. Quite clearly, this extensive analogue expands and describes not only the worship of God by those around the throne, but the main emphasis is on the effect of the prophetic establishment of the reign of God.
Passage 8. Revelation 21:9–22:5: God’s Reign
This is the final seeing/hearing analogue. In it, John implicitly hears the angel say, “come, I will show you . . .” (primary analogue). The vision of the Holy City follows (adjunctive analogue). Certainly, this description (what is seen) rather powerfully elaborates on the words of the angel (what is heard). In this ultimate analogue rests the cumulative rationale for the final prophetic revelation of the establishment of God’s reign.
Conclusion
We have identified two distinct patterns of the seeing/hearing motif in the Apocalypse of John. Quite clearly, John intends to convey something significant by these variations. Rhetorical analysis, particularly Humphrey’s study of argumentation within vision-reports, sheds light on John’s purpose in using these patterns — the visions provide the rationale for what is heard, by setting the “word” into the prophetic scenario. The eight special passages begin with the vision of the glorified Christ (ch. 1), the authoritative source of the entire message of Revelation. They proceed through the text, which elaborates the message of God’s judgment and reign, and culminates in the two final analogues which dramatically describe the impact and effect of God’s reign on the wicked and the ultimate establishment of the Kingdom with the righteous.
TABLES
| TABLE I – Total Uses of Hearing and Seeing | |||
| Reference | Greek | English Rendition (NIV) | |
| Chapter | Verse | ||
| 1 | 2 | ei}don | He testifies to everything he saw |
| 3 | o9i a0kou/ontej | Blessed are the ones who hear it | |
| 7 | o1yetai | Every eye will see him | |
| 10 | h!kousa | I heard a voice like a trumpet saying | |
| 11 | o9 ble/peij | What you see, write | |
| 12 | ble/pein | I turned to see the voice | |
| ei}don | I saw seven golden candlesticks | ||
| 17 | ei}don | I saw him | |
| 19 | a4 ei}dej | Write what you see | |
| 20 | ou3j ei}dej | The mystery of the seven stars which you saw | |
| 2–3 | 7 | a0kousa/tw | He who has ears let him hear[Repeated in vv. 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22] |
| 4 | 1 | ei}don | I saw a throne |
| h!kousa | The first voice I heard was as a trumpet | ||
| 5 | 1 | ei}don | I saw in the right hand |
| 2 | ei}don | I saw a strong angel | |
| 3 | ble/pein | [No one] could see inside it | |
| 4 | ble/pein | [No one] was found to look inside it | |
| 6 | ei}don | I saw in the midst of the throne | |
| 11 | ei}don kai\\ h!kousa | I saw and heard the voice | |
| 6 | 1 | ei}don | I saw the Lamb |
| h!kousa | I heard one of the four living creatures say | ||
| 2 | ei}don | I saw a white horse | |
| 3 | h!kousa | I heard the 2nd living creature say | |
| 5 | h!kousa | I heard the 3rd living creature say | |
| ei}don | I saw a black horse | ||
| 6 | h!kousa | I heard a voice | |
| 7 | h!kousa | I heard the voice | |
| 8 | ei}don | I saw a pale horse | |
| 9 | ei}don | I saw under the altar | |
| 12 | ei}don | I saw when he opened the 6th seal | |
| 7 | 1 | ei}don | I saw four angels |
| 2 | ei}don | I saw another angel | |
| 4 | h!kousa | I heard the number | |
| 9 | ei}don | I saw a great crowd | |
| 8 | 2 | ei}don | I saw the seven angels |
| 13 | ei}don kai\ h!kousa | I saw and heard an eagle | |
| 9 | 1 | ei}don | I saw a star |
| 13 | h!kousa | I heard a great voice | |
| 17 | ei}don | The horses I saw in my vision | |
| 20 | ble/pein / a0kou/ein | The idols which cannot see nor hear nor walk | |
| 10 | 1 | ei}don | I saw another strong angel |
| 2 | h!kousa | I heard a voice out of heaven | |
| 5 | o4n ei}don | The angel which I saw | |
| 8 | h!kousa | The voice I heard | |
| 11 | 9 | ble/pousin | the people…will gaze |
| 11 | tou\j qewrou=ntaj | Terror struck those who saw them | |
| 12 | h!kousa | They heard a great voice | |
| e0qew&rhsan | Their enemies looked on | ||
| 19 | w1fqh | The ark of the covenant was seen | |
| 12 | 1 | w1fqh | A great sign was seen in heaven |
| 2 | w1fqh | Another sign was seen | |
| 10 | h!kousa | I heard a great voice | |
| 13 | 1 | ei}don | I saw a beast |
| 2 | o4 ei}don | The beast which I saw | |
| 11 | ei}don | I saw another beast | |
| 14 | 1 | ei}don | I looked and there before me was the Lamb |
| 2 | h!kousa | I heard a voice | |
| h4n h!kousa | The voice which I heard | ||
| 6 | ei}don | I saw another angel | |
| 13 | h!kousa | I heard a voice | |
| 14 | ei}don | I saw a white cloud | |
| 15 | 1 | ei}don | I saw another sign |
| 2 | ei}don | I saw…a sea of glass | |
| 5 | ei}don | I saw the temple | |
| 16 | 1 | h!kousa | I heard a great voice |
| 5 | h!kousa | I heard the angel | |
| 7 | h!kousa | I heard the altar | |
| 13 | ei}don | I saw three evil spirits | |
| 17 | 3 | ei}don | I saw a woman |
| 6 | ei}don | I saw [that] the woman was drunk | |
| i0dw__n | When I saw her | ||
| 8 | o4 ei}dej | The beast whom you saw | |
| 12 | a4 ei}dej | The ones you saw | |
| 15 | a4 ei}dej | the water which you saw | |
| 16 | a4 ei}dej | the 10 horns which you saw | |
| 18 | h34 ei}dej | the woman you saw | |
| 18 | 1 | ei}don | I saw another angel |
| 4 | h!kousa | I heard another voice | |
| 18 | ble/pontej | When they see the smoke | |
| 22 | ou0 mh\ a0kousqh=| | The voice of the millstone will never be heard | |
| 23 | ou0 mh\ a0kousqh=| | The voice of the bridegroom will never be heard | |
| 19 | 1 | h!kousa | I heard… a great multitude |
| 6 | h!kousa | I heard… a great multitude | |
| 11 | ei}don | I saw [the] heaven standing open | |
| 17 | ei}don | I saw an angel | |
| 19 | ei}don | I saw the beast | |
| 20 | 1 | ei}don | I saw an angel |
| 4 | ei}don | I saw thrones | |
| 11 | ei}don | I saw a great white throne | |
| 12 | ei}don | I saw the dead | |
| 21 | 1 | ei}don | I saw a new heaven and a new earth |
| 3 | h!kousa | I heard a great voice | |
| 22 | ou0k ei}don | I did not see a temple | |
| 22 | 4 | o1yetai | They shall see his face |
| 8 | o9 a0kou/on kai\ ble/pon | The one who hears and sees these things | |
| h!kousa kai\ e1bleya | [When] I [had] heard and seen them | ||
| 17 | o9 a0kou/on | The one who hears | |
| 18 | tw|~ a0kou/onti | The one who hears |
| TABLE II: Audio/Visual Analogue Patterns | ||||
| Reference | Pattern or Variation (*implicit)(See page 22) | Linguistics | ||
| Greek | English Translation | |||
| 1:10–12 | 2 | hear/see | h!kousa ble/pein | hears the voicesees vision of Jesus |
| 1:17–20 | 1 | see/hear* | ei}don | sees vision of Jesus(hears) Jesus’ words |
| 4:1 | 1 | see/hear | ei}don h!kousa | sees the open door;hears voice, “Come up” |
| 4:2–8 | 1 | see*/hear* | (sees) the throne room;(hears) worship songs | |
| 4:9–11 | 1 | see*/hear* | (sees) the worshippers;(hears) worship songs | |
| 5:1–2 | 1g | see/see/hear* | ei}donei}don | sees the scroll;sees the strong angel;(hears) the cry of the angel |
| 5:5–6 | 2 | hear*/see | ei}don | (hears) the lion introduced;sees the sacrificed Lamb |
| 5:7–10 | 1 | See*/hear* | (sees) the throne room & worshippers;(hears) worship songs | |
| 5:11–13 | 1d | see/hear/hear | ei}donh!kousa | sees the worshippers;hears the worshippers [twice] |
| 6:1–2 | 1a | see/hear/see | ei}donh!kousaei}don | sees the Lamb open the 1st seal;hears the creature say, “Come”sees the content [of the seal] |
| 6:3–4 | 1a | see*/hear/see* | h!kousa | (sees) the Lamb open the 2nd seal;hears the creature say, “Come”(sees) the content [of the seal] |
| 6:5–6 | 1b | see*/hear/see/hear | h!kousaei}donh!kousa | (sees) the Lamb open the 3rd seal;hears the creature say, “Come”;sees the content [of the seal];hears explanation |
| 6:7–8 | 1a | see*/hear/see | h!kousaei}don | (sees) the Lamb open the 4th seal;hears the creature say, “come”sees the content (of the seal) |
| 6:9–10 | 1a | see/hear*/see* | ei}don | sees the Lamb open the 5th seal;(hears) the souls under the altar(sees) the white robes [of the souls] |
| 6:12–15 | 1 | see/hear* | ei}don | sees the Lamb open the 6th seal;(hears) the cry of the wicked |
| 7:1–8 | 1i | see/see/hear*/hear | ei}donei}donh!kousa | sees four angels holding the winds;sees the angel with the seal;(hears) the command to the 4 angels;hears the number of the tribes |
| 7:9–17 | 1b | see/hear*/see*/hear* | ei}don | sees the Great Multitude;(hears) their song;(sees) the worshippers;(hears) who they are |
| 8:1 | 1 | see*/hear* | (sees) the opening of the 7th seal;(hears) the silence | |
| 8:6–7 | 1a | see*/hear*/see* | (sees) the 7 trumpets;(hears) the 1st trumpet(sees) the result | |
| 8:8–9 | 1a | see*/hear*/see* | (sees/hears) the 2nd trumpet angel;(sees) the result | |
| 8:10–11 | 1a | see*/hear*/see* | (sees/hears) the 3rd trumpet angel;(sees) the result | |
| 8:12 | 1a | see*/hear*/see* | (sees/hears) the 4th trumpet angel;(sees) the result | |
| 8:13 | 1 | see/hear | ei}donh!kousa | sees the eagle;hears the eagle, “Woe, woe, woe” |
| 9:1–12 | 2b | hear*/see/hear*/comment | ei}don | (hears) the 5th trumpet;sees the result;(hears) the command;[comment: v. 12] |
| 9:13–21 | 2c | hear*/hear/see*/hear/see/comment | h!kousah!kousaei}don | (hears) the 6th trumpet;hears the voice from the altar;(sees) the result;hears the number of troops;sees the troops;[comment: vv. 20–21] |
| 10:1–4 | 1 | see/hear | ei}donh!kousa | sees the mighty angel;hears the 7 thunders and voice |
| 10:5–11 | 1 | see/hear | ei}donh!kousa | sees the mighty angel;hears the angel’s message; |
| 11:15–19 | 2 | hear*/see | w1fqh | (hears) the 7th trumpet and worshippers;sees the Ark of the Covenant |
| 12:1–12 | 1h | See/see/hear/see* | w1fqhw1fqhh!kousa | sees the sun clothed woman;sees the red dragon;hears loud voices;(sees) the conflict |
| 13:1–10 | 1j | see/see/comment | ei}donei}don | sees the beast from the sea;sees the beasts’ description;[comment vv. 9–10] |
| 14:1–5 | 1e | see/hear/comment | ei}donh!kousa | sees the Lamb with the 144,000;hears the heavenly singers & harpists;[comment: vv. 3b–5] |
| 14:6–7 | 1 | see/hear* | ei}don | sees the angel in midair;(hears) the angel’s message |
| 14:8 | 1 | see*/hear* | (sees) a 2nd angel;(hears) the angel’s message | |
| 14:9–13 | 1e | see*/hear*/comment* | (sees) a 3rd angel;(hears) the angel’s message;[comment: v. 12] | |
| 14:14–16 | 1 | see/hear* | ei}don | sees a figure on the cloud;(hears) the call to reap |
| 14:17–19 | 1f | see*/hear*/comment | (sees) the angel with the sickle and the angel from the altar;(hears) the call to reap;[comment: v. 20] | |
| 15:1–4 | 1g | see/see/hear* | ei}donei}don | sees 7 angels with bowls;sees the group before the throne;(hears) the group’s song |
| 16:1–7 | 2a | hear/see*/hear | h!kousah!kousa | hears the voice from the temple;(sees) the 1st three angels;hears 2 affirmations |
| 16:12–16 | 1j | see*/see/comment | ei}don | (sees) the 6th angel pouring;sees the 3 evil spirits;[comment: vv. 14–16] |
| 16:17–21 | 1c | *see/hear*/see*/comment | (sees) the 7th angel pouring;(hears) a voice from the throne;(sees) the results of the pouring;[comment: v. 21b] | |
| 17:1–14 | 1f | see*/hear*/see/hear*/comment | ei}don | (sees) one of the 7 angels;(hears) the angel’s message;sees the woman on the scarlet beast;(hears) the angel’s explanation;[comment: vv. 9–14] |
| 18:1–24 | 1d | see/hear*/hear | ei}donh!kousa | sees angel from heaven;(hears) the angel’s message;hears another voice from heaven |
| 19:1–21:8 | 2 | hear/see | h!kousaei}don | hears the worshippers;sees a visions of God’s judgments |
| 21:9–22:5 | 2 | hear/see | h!kousaei}don | hears one of the 7 angels;sees multiple visions of God’s reign |
1. See the Apocalypse of Baruch, Enoch, IV Ezra, and parts of Ezekiel and Daniel.
2. Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation (NICNT; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977); J. Massynberde Ford, Revelation (AB 38; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975); Elizabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, Revelation: Vision of a Just World (Proclamation Commentaries; Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1991).
3. David E. Aune, Revelation 6–16 (WBC 52B; Nashville, TN: Nelson, 1998), 373.
4. George B. Caird, The Revelation of St. John (San Francisco, CA: Harper, 1966), 96.
5. See also J. P. M. Sweet, Revelation (PNTC; London: SCM, 1979), 150–51.
6. Richard Bauckham, The Climax of Prophecy: Studies on the Book of Revelation (Edinburgh: Clark, 1993), 216.
7. Steve Moyise, The Old Testament in the Book of Revelation (JSNTSup 115; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 132.
8. For some analysis of this issue see David L. Barr, “The Apocalypse as a Symbolic Transformation of the World: A Literary Analysis,” Int 38 (1984): 39–50.
9. Gregory K. Beale, The Book of Revelation (NIGTC; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1999), 425. For an extensive analysis of the ‘hearing’ formula in Revelation, see also Anne-Marit Enroth, “The Hearing Formula in the Book of Revelation,” NTS 36 (1990): 598–608. Her analysis, however, does not relate hearing to “seeing.”
10. Rebecca Skaggs and Thomas Doyle, “Lion/Lamb in Revelation,” Currents in Biblical Research 7/3 (2009): 362–75.
11. Edith M. Humphrey, And I Turned to See the Voice: The Rhetoric of Vision in the New Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007).
12. Greg Carey and L. Gregory Bloomquist, eds., Vision and Persuasion: Rhetorical Dimensions of Apocalyptic Discourse (St. Louis, MO: Chalice, 1999).
13. David A. deSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way: The Rhetoric of the Book of Revelation (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2009).
14. Humphrey, I Turned to See the Voice.
15. Carey, “Introduction” in Vision and Persuasion, 1–17 (12–13).
16. DeSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way, 257.
17. Aristotle defines an enthymeme as a statement supported by a rationale, the adding of the “why/wherefore” (Rhetoric 2.21.2). However, David Aune, “The Use and Abuse of the Enthymeme in New Testament Scholarship,” NTS 49 (2003): 299–320 (305), reminds us that there are more definitions of enthymemes in the ancient world than just Aristotle’s. Also, the goal of an enthymeme is not to achieve logical certainty but to convince an audience; in other words, it provides logical probability, not logical certainty. DeSilva, Seeing, 232, explains that enthymemes may assume some necessary steps in the argument made by the reader (see also Lloyd Bitzer, “Aristotle’s Enthymeme Revisited” in Aristotle: The Classical Heritage of Rhetoric [ed. Keith V. Erickson; Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1974], 149–55).
Hence, the hearer forms a partnership with the speaker or writer in constructing the argument; there is often a need for “audience participation” in the construction of parts of the argument. John T. Kirby, “The Rhetorical Situations of Revelation 1–3,” NTS 34 (1988): 197–207, sheds light on the nature of enthymemes in that “[they] advance conclusions on the strength of premises which may or may not be explicitly formulated. Premises are often expressed in Greek by oti or gar, conclusions by oun. The use of logos here is important because the pronouncements, though absolute, are seen not to be irrationally despotic: there is logos, a rationale, underlying them all” (202–203).
18. Humphrey, I Turned to See the Voice, 154.
19. Ibid., 36–37.
20. DeSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way, 257–58.
21. Ibid., 234.
22. Humphrey, I Turned to See the Voice, 28.
23. Ibid., 18.
24. Ibid., 28, 155, 200.
25. Ibid., 151. For adherence to this idea, see deSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way, 235, n. 21, and Jorg Frey, “The Relevance of the Roman Imperial Cult for the Book of Revelation: Exegetical and Hermeneutical Reflections on the Relation Between the Seven Letters and the Visionary Main Part of the Book” in The New Testament and Early Christian Literature in Greco-Roman Context: Studies in Honor of David E. Aune (ed. John Fotopoulos; NovTSup 122; Leiden: Brill, 2006), 251–55 (246).
26. Beale, Revelation, 203.
27. Aune, Revelation 6–16, 85. See also p. 88 for further discussion and examples.
28. Skaggs and Doyle, “Lion/Lamb.”
29. Some scholars (e.g., Beale, Revelation, 424–25; Robby Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation [JPTSup 30; Dorset, UK: Deo, 2006], 140) interpret Rev 7 as comparable to ch. 5:5–6. They suggest that the same way John “hears” the lion introduced, and “sees” the Lamb, he also “hears” the number of the tribes of the 144,000 and “sees” the great multitude. Two significant points must be taken into account, however, before this comparability is taken seriously:
Whereas 5:5–6 (lion/Lamb) is one single vision, in ch. 7 there are two distinct visions, introduced by Meta_ tou~to ei]don (7:1) and Meta_ tau~ta ei]don (7:9): the activity of the 144,000 in 7:1–8 and the vision of the great multitude in 7:9–17 (see Ekkehardt Muller, Microstructural Analysis of Revelation 4–11 [Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University Press, 1994], 258, for the analysis of the formula introducing visions).
Whereas in 5:5–6, the “hearing” (implicit) of the lion is immediately followed by the sight of the sacrificed Lamb (ei]don), in ch. 7, each vision (7:1–8 and 7:9–17) has its own distinctive analogue of sight/sound as follows.
Scene A. 7:1–8: John “sees” (Meta_ tou~to ei]don) the four angels holding back the winds of the earth; he “sees” (kai\ ei]don) another angel coming with the seal of God; he “hears” (h!kousa) the number of each of the tribes of the 144,000 to be sealed.
Scene B. 7:9–17: Here, John “sees” (Meta_ tau~ta ei]don) the great multitude; he “hears” (implicit) their songs (vv. 10, 11); he then “hears” (implicit) the description and explanation of who the crowd is.
Clearly, then, the pattern of analogues is different in 5:5–6 and 7:1–8, 9–17. This is not to say that John does not intend some relation between the two. Most likely, he does. The point is that the relation must be made based on interpretation, not on the form of the analogues. Indeed, we suggest that this is one of the most beneficial aspects of our analysis — that it allows for a more explicit and accurate understanding of the relation of passages through the text of the Apocalypse.
30. Humphrey, I Turned to See the Voice, 170.
31. Ibid., 171; see also Leonard L. Thompson, The Book of Revelation: Apocalypse and Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 8.
32. Beale, Revelation, 296.
33. Aune, Revelation 6–16, 258–59.
34. Aune, Revelation 6–16, 646.
35. DeSilva, Seeing Things John’s Way, 258.
