Читать книгу Quantum Physics is NOT Weird - Paul J. van Leeuwen - Страница 26

In 1905, in his Annus Mirabilis, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) published four very important physics articles, presenting groundbreaking theories concerning:

 special relativity [3]; about time and space effects between uniformly – that is not changing in velocity – moving systems,

 the Brownian motion [4]; where he convincingly demonstrated the existence of the molecules and their movement in a liquid, which manifests itself as heat,

 the photoelectric effect [5]; explaining the way light of sufficient high frequency can free electrons from metal and why light of lower frequencies is not able to do that,

 the equivalence of energy and mass [6]; a relation derived from the special relativity theory.

In 1921 Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. He explained that effect with an adaptation of the Planck Black Body radiation law. He realized that he could treat the radiation within the hollow space of a Black Body emitter as if it was a gas of light particles ^[7]. His adaptation was based on the statistical derivation of the gas laws, formulated by Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) in 1884. Boltzmann’s statistical approach could be applied to Einstein's gas of light particles model with some slight adjustments.

Boltzmann’s classic statistical gas laws assumed enormous numbers of very small and fast-moving and colliding particles. Initially Boltzmann's statistical approach was not received favorably by many of his colleagues because, according to them, there was no place for fuzzy concepts as chance and probability in Newtonian mechanics. Tragically, he did not enjoy the enormous success of his statistical approach. Boltzmann was manic-depressive. In 1906 he fell into a deep depression leading to suicide.

Now for the problem that Einstein solved. The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon that, under the condition that the light frequencies are above certain values, light shining on a metal surface will release electrons from the metal. This limit was in obvious contradiction with Maxwell’s continuous EM-waves. The frequency of the light was the decisive prerequisite for the occurrence of the effect, not the intensity. So, for example red light – low frequency – did not release electrons, no matter how high the intensity of the red light was. Like when you cannot fill a glass from a tap with a wide opening, from which the water flows broadly with little force, but is filled easily from a narrow spout from which the water shoots with great force. This begged for an explanation, but classical Newtonian physics – more specifically Maxwell's equations – did not provide an explanation. That is because according to classical theory any EM wave of any frequency could provide enough energy when applied long enough.

Einstein's solution ^[8] of the problem was that light had to be quantized in particles, later called photons, according to Planck's formula: E = h.f. The energy for each light particle had to be above a certain minimum value to be able to release an electron from the metal. Releasing an electron from metal needs a minimum amount of energy. Einstein’s paper was therefore a fair confirmation of Planck's quantum hypothesis. A single photon with the right frequency – and therefore sufficient energy – could release one electron, but a whole bunch of photons of a low frequency achieved nothing, although their combined energy would be more than sufficient. You could regard these light particles as a rehabilitation for Newton's corpuscles, where each particle has its specific color – which is now also its frequency. Photons are therefore considered as discrete energy packages.

Figure 4.3: Photoelectric effect. Red light photons have too little energy, 1.77 eV, to release an electron from the metal. Green light has just enough energy, 2.25 eV. Violet light has more than enough so that the electron shoots away with a kinetic energy of 3.1-2.25 eV = 0.85 eV. Source: Wikipedia.org

The physical significance of the frequency and wavelength of a photon was not clear, and this has not become clear today yet. We cannot imagine properly a particle that is at the same time a wave of a single frequency. It has been tried. Just try to visualize water waves on a lake that are concentrated in little wavy blobs, each with its own frequency and energy. An impossible task for our imagination.

How a spherical expanding electromagnetic Maxwell wave, whereby the energy also spreads out over the same spherical shape, becomes the very localized and precise energy transfer of the electromagnetic quantum, could not be explained by any means. The surface of the expanding sphere will increase with the square of the distance to the source. The energy per square inch of the wave will therefore decrease in an inverse square ratio to the distance from the source. To test this, just walk towards a bright light with a camera with its exposure setting in the A-mode (fixed aperture ^[9]) and observe the inverse quadratic relationship between distance and shutter speed.

According to the very local discrete energy transfer, that is the photon, when it releases an electron in the photoelectric effect, this spherical distributed EM-wave would have to alter suddenly into a single discrete photon. This energy transfer per photon only depends on its frequency and not at all on its distance from the source. This is clearly in conflict with a spherical continuous expanding energy distribution. Maxwell's EM wave and Einstein's photon are both very useful models that, however, clearly cannot be reconciled with each other, at least not on the scale of atomic interactions. This irreconcilability is a profound and still unsolved enigma since Planck's discovery of the quantum of energy transfer and Einstein's introduction of the light particle. This mystery has still not been solved to satisfaction until today.

Although Einstein with this publication made an enormously important contribution to quantum physics, he has since then, during almost his entire career, fiercely protested against the implications of quantum physics, mainly because these clearly contradicted causality, a basic assumption in classical physics, and also strongly suggested that his relativity laws were violated. His relativity laws told that the speed of light was the maximum speed of information exchange in the universe. The theory of relativity is convincingly confirmed by numerous experiments. Were relativity not implemented in our GPS systems, their indications would deviate in an important way from our actual locations.

Planck limited his concept of quantization to transmitted and absorbed energy, but Einstein proposed that every expanding EM-wave was quantized in particles, photons. That subtle difference may seem unimportant, but it isn’t. More about that later, as we will discover that photons are probably just reified abstract mathematical concepts.

In summary, electromagnetic radiation was found to have evidential wave-like properties, but also evidential particle properties.

Meanwhile, the construction of matter on its smallest scale was investigated in various laboratories. Ernest Rutherford did a ‘golden’ discovery.