Читать книгу Kierkegaard: Philosophy in an Hour - Paul Strathern - Страница 5

Søren Aabye Kierkegaard was born in Copenhagen on May 5, 1813, in the same year as the flamboyant German opera composer Richard Wagner. These two archetypical nineteenth-century characters occupy the opposite poles of that century’s genius. Kierkegaard was to become all that Wagner did not, and vice versa. Virtually the only thing they had in common – seemingly indispensable for nineteenth-century genius – was a strain of madness. Kierkegaard’s madness was not a central feature of his psychic makeup (it was his brother’s son who ended up in an insane asylum), but it is nonetheless evident in certain persistent oddities of his behaviour. All his life Kierkegaard was obsessively solitary, and in consequence the few influences upon him took on an exaggerated aspect. By far the greatest influence on the young Kierkegaard was his father, who exhibited a much closer proximity to madness (and would probably have been regarded as insane in a more sophisticated Mediterranean society).

The influence of Kierkegaard’s father was formative. Almost everything that he became was either a direct result of his father’s overbearing influence or in violent reaction against it. There was little casual normality in their relationship.

Kierkegaard senior had been born a serf in the remote heaths of Jutland in northern Denmark. His family belonged to the local priest and worked his fields. This almost certainly accounts for the family name Kierkegaard, which is Danish for ‘churchyard’. By the age of ten the young Kierkegaard senior was out in all weather looking after the sheep. According to one of his sons, ‘He suffered from hunger and cold, or at other times was exposed to the burning rays of the sun, left to himself and the animals, lonely and forlorn.’ He was highly religious, yet he could not understand how God could allow him to suffer so. One day, driven to desperation, he stood on a rock on the barren hillside and solemnly cursed God.

Almost at once, things took a turn for the better. An uncle in Copenhagen sent for young Kierkegaard senior and gave him employment in his woolen goods business. Kierkegaard senior proved an excellent salesman, tramping the highways and byways in all weather to sell stockings and pullovers to countrymen and townsfolk alike. Eventually he had enough money to marry and set up home. When the uncle died, he was left a considerable business. This he continued to build until he was one of the richest merchants in Copenhagen, occasionally even entertaining royalty at his dinner table. The five houses he owned survived the British naval bombardment of 1803, which flattened large areas of the city. Ten years later, when the Danish economy went spectacularly bankrupt, Kierkegaard senior was one of the few to survive, having invested his fortune in gilt-edged securities.

But already the man who had cursed God felt deep within him that he was accursed. His first wife died, and he married his maidservant. Of his seven children, only two survived. Then the second wife died.

Søren Kierkegaard was the youngest child, born when his father was already fifty-six. The years of Søren’s childhood were regularly punctuated by family deaths. Already doom-laden and religion-obsessed by the time Søren was born, Kierkegaard senior became an increasingly depressive tyrant. He retired from business and withdrew to a reclusive life amidst the gloom of the family mansion. He quickly recognised Søren as the most intelligent of his offspring, and Søren became his father’s favourite. In any other family this might have been an enviable position, but not at the Kierkegaards’.

By the age of seven Kierkegaard’s father was teaching him logic after his own fashion. Young Kierkegaard’s statements would be subjected to perverse logical scrutiny, and he would be forced to defend his every assertion.

Relaxation came in the form of extensive foreign travel. This all took place within the confines of his father’s study. Young Kierkegaard would listen while his father painstakingly described the architectural and cultural delights of such faraway places as Dresden, Paris, and Florence. Afterward, young Søren would be encouraged to take a ‘grand tour’ around the room, forced to describe in detail the views he saw – such as the sunburnt hillside of Fiesole above the domes and towers of Florence (each of which had to be named and described).

As a result of this mental child abuse, the already intelligent young Kierkegaard developed a supremely logical mind as well as a superb (if somewhat dry) imagination. Like many a modern travel guide writer, Kierkegaard’s father had never actually seen the faraway romantic spots that he described. His travels had been conducted entirely between the covers of books – but for all this they did not lack in telling authentic detail. In his later philosophy Kierkegaard was to show an uncanny ability to imagine himself in situations (especially biblical and psychological ones) that he had only metaphorically experienced. This skill stems directly from accompanying his father on his armchair travels.

On a deeper level, Kierkegaard senior seems to have wished to overwhelm his son’s mind and impose on it his own blinkered view of the world. Dominant fathers have always enjoyed inflicting the goals they have achieved (or, more commonly, failed to achieve) on their sons, but Kierkegaard senior was different. He felt driven, but he no longer had any goals. He saw himself as accursed, and he wallowed in total despair. It was this driven despair that he wished, consciously or otherwise, to impose upon his son. In his later journals Kierkegaard senior pointedly tells the story of the man who gazed at his son one day and told him, ‘Poor child, you are living in silent despair.’ This would seem to derive from an autobiographical episode (or was possibly a regular refrain).

Not surprisingly, Kierkegaard was a somewhat odd pupil at school. He dressed in buttoned-up old-fashioned clothes and behaved in a buttoned-up old-fashioned manner. His teachers described him as being like ‘a little old man’. He didn’t excel at schoolwork, though he was certainly in a different intellectual class from his fellow pupils. His father had instructed him not to draw attention to his intelligence: he was to place third in his class. Young Søren dutifully obliged. (This must have required even more skill: any budding genius can come in first.)

As Kierkegaard grew older it became plain that his odd appearance was due to more than just his old-fashioned clothes. His body was angular and sticklike, and he seems to have suffered from a spinal disease which gave him a slight hunchback. Never one of the gang, the outsider Kierkegaard inevitably attracted the teasing of his more boisterous schoolmates. He soon learned to defend himself with a sarcastic wit. This sarcasm he then began to use aggressively, provoking other boys with his comments and attracting their bullying. This behaviour trait was to recur throughout Kierkegaard’s life.

Like many an earnest introvert, Kierkegaard liked to consider himself the centre of attention. He was certainly used to being the centre of his father’s attention, and the fervent intensity of his inner life meant that he was very much the centre of his own attention. Provoking others, even if he suffered for it, reinforced the illusion that the world revolved around him. This martyr complex was to become an important factor in his psychological makeup.

After leaving school Kierkegaard enrolled at the University of Copenhagen to study theology. Here he seems to have been a surprisingly normal student. Quickly recognised for his wide-ranging erudition and waspish wit, he cut quite a figure in the student circles of provincial Copenhagen. He soon found himself neglecting the study of theology in favour of philosophy. He became interested in Hegel, whose philosophy had spread like the plague throughout Germany (and was now reaching epidemic proportions in various lesser philosophic nations). Hegel’s deep seriousness and earnest, spiritually oriented view of the world struck a chord in Kierkegaard. According to Hegel’s all-embracing system, the world developed according to a triadic dialectical process. An initial thesis would generate its antithesis, and both would then be subsumed in a synthesis (which in turn was seen as a thesis, and so on). His classic example was:

Thesis: Being (or existence). Antithesis: Nothing (or nonexistence). Synthesis: Becoming.

By means of this dialectic everything moved toward greater self-consciousness, and ultimately toward the Absolute Spirit, which subsumed everything as it contemplated itself. This all-embracing Absolute Spirit even subsumed religion, which was viewed as an earlier stage of the ultimate philosophy (that is, Hegel’s). The appeal of such a philosophy to the introverted Kierkegaard is obvious – not least in its oedipal, religious, and narcissistic aspects.

Although Kierkegaard was overwhelmed with admiration for Hegel, his relationship toward him was suitably dialectical from the start. He loved him, he hated him, and ultimately his own anti-Hegelian philosophy was to be suffused with Hegelian concepts – not the least being Kierkegaard’s own version of the dialectic. But more important, right from the start Kierkegaard had doubts about the Absolute Spirit and its self-knowledge. For Kierkegaard, self-knowledge had to be achieved at the subjective level. He insisted that for individuals the subjective had to be more important than any Absolute Spirit. The subjective realm was our major concern. Some resourceful commentators have detected unconscious echoes of Kierkegaard’s relationship to his father in all this. And sure enough, the young subjective element was soon to find itself in opposition to the paternal Absolute Spirit.

Around this time Kierkegaard’s relationship with his father underwent a dramatic change. By way of passing on the family curse, Kierkegaard senior appears to have made a number of confessions to his intense and impressionable son. He explained how he had cursed God long ago on a hill in Jutland. Kierkegaard is said to have recoiled from this revelation in horror, and soon afterward began to drift into a drunken, dissolute life at the university.

Some perceptive commentators have suggested that there is more here than meets the eye. By this stage Kierkegaard was probably looking for an excuse to break free of his father’s overbearing influence. It also seems certain that the pious old man’s confession included more than just theological matters. He may well have confessed that he had committed fornication – sleeping with the maidservant (his future second wife, Kierkegaard’s mother) while his first wife lay on her deathbed. This could also help to explain the dramatic – or self-dramatised – turn in Kierkegaard’s behaviour (which was not quite as dissolute as he would have us believe). But it has also been suggested that the father’s confessions contained something more serious than infantile blasphemy and earnest guilt over peccadilloes. In the view of critic Ronald Grimsley, covert references in Kierkegaard’s journals hint that the father had visited a bordello and contracted syphilis, which may even have been passed on to his son. Kierkegaard’s subsequent behaviour certainly doesn’t rule out this lurid possibility.