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1. I thank Juan Felipe Gutiérrez Flórez and the historian Joan Manuel Largo Vargas for their support and for critically reading and commenting on this text. Some of these considerations were presented as a preamble to the Seminar Contextos del Conocimiento, given by Professor Dr. Peter Burke in Medellín in 2015, and some others, during the 3rd Congress of Intellectual History in Latin America, held in Mexico DF in November 2016. In general, they are the result of the academic and teaching work for courses and research projects.

2. Academic Affairs Director and Associate Professor at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Medellín. PhD in Empirische Kulturwissenschaft (Cultural Studies) of the Ludwig-Uhland-Institut, Tübingen University, Germany. Research fellow at the Max-Planck-Institut für europäische Rechtsgeschichte in 1997 and 1999; and postdoctoral researcher in Germany in 2003, 2008 and 2010. Historian from the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Medellín. National Culture Award 2000. Medal of University Merit 2011. She has published, among others, Hechicería, brujería e Inquisición en el Nuevo Reino de Granada. Un duelo de imaginarios; Hexerei und Zauberei im Neuen Königreich Granada, Eine Untersuchung magischer Praxen, and “Quien tal hace que tal pague”. Justicia, magia y sociedad en el Nuevo Reino de Granada; as well as articles in collective works and in national and international journals.

3. Burke Peter, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe, London, Temple Smith, 1978 (reprint. 1979, 1983, 1988, among many others); Küchenlatein. Sprache und Umgangssprache in der frühen Neuzeit, Berlin, Wagenbach, 1989 (these and other essays were published in Spanish as Hablar y callar. Funciones sociales del lenguaje a través de la historia, Barcelona, Gedisa, 1996), y Kultureller Austausch, Frankfurt am Main, Surhkamp, 2000. See also Soziologie und Geschichte, 11th. ed., Hamburg, Junius, 1989; and Culture and Society in Renaissance Italy, London, Batsford, 1972 (2nd. ed. 1974; 3rd. ed., 1986; reprint. 1988, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995; 4th. ed., 1999, reprint. 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006).

4. A more detailed reading of this subject can be found in Ceballos Gómez Diana L., “Reading Peter Burke”, in Chicangana-Bayona Yobenj and Catalina Reyes Cárdenas, Peter Burke, Debates y perspectivas de la Nueva Historia Cultural, Bogotá, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Alcaldía Mayor, Fundación Gilberto Alzate Avendaño, 2011, pp. 27-33.

5. Steiner George, Después de Babel. Aspectos del lenguaje y la traducción, 1st. ed., México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1981.

6. Burke Peter, A Social History of Knowledge. I. From Gutenberg to Diderot, Cambridge, Polity, 2000 (reprint. 2002), and A Social History of Knowledge. II. From the Encyclopédie to Wikipedia, Cambridge & Malden, Polity, 2012. See also Briggs Asa & Peter Burke, A Social History of the Media. From Gutenberg to the Internet, Cambridge, Polity, 2002, and Stiegler Bernard, Die Logik der Sorge. Verlust der Aufklärung durch Technik und Medien, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 2008.

7. Cassirer Ernst, Philosophie der Aufklärung, in Werke, Hamburg, Meiner Verlag, 1932. See also his text An Essay on Man. An Introduction to a Philosophy of Human Culture, Yale & New Haven, Yale University Press, 1944.

8. Leroi-Gourhan André, Le geste et la parole, Paris, Albin Michel, 1964.

9. Huizinga wrote an essay on the dangers and difficulties of evolutionist interpretations in El concepto de la historia y otros ensayos, México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1980. In the chapter “Problemas de Historia de la Cultura”, section “II. El concepto de evolución sólo puede emplearse en la ciencia histórica de un modo condicionado y sirve muchas veces en ella de traba y obstáculo” (the concept of evolution can only be used in historical science in a conditioned way and it works in it, many times, as an obstacle).

10. Sperber Dan, Le symbolisme en général, Paris, Hermann, 1974, p. 148.

11. Turner Victor, The Forest of Symbols: Aspects of Ndembu Ritual, Ithaca-New York, Cornell University, 1967, and The Drums of Affliction. A Study of Religious Processes among the Ndembu of Zambia, Oxford, Clarendon, 1968.

12. Sahlins Marshall, Islands of History, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985.

13. Cassirer Ernst, Filosofía de las formas simbólicas, 3 volumes, México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1971.

14. Eliade Mircea, Imágenes y símbolos. Ensayos sobre el simbolismo mágico-religioso, 4th. reprint, Madrid, Taurus, 1987; Le Chamanisme et les techniques archaïques de l’estase, 2nd. ed., Paris, Payot, 1968; Occultism, Witchcraft and Cultural Fashions. Essays in Comparative Religions, Chicago-London, The University of Chicago, 1976, and Le Sacré et le Profane, París, Gallimard, 1990. Ceballos Gómez Diana L., “Quien tal hace, que tal pague”. Justicia, magia y sociedad en el Nuevo Reino de Granada [2002], 2nd. ed., Medellín, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 2017; “Magie”, in Lecourt Dominique (Dir.), Dictionnaire de la Pensée Médicale, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2004, pp. 693-697, and Zauberei und Hexerei im Neuen Königreich Granada. Einer Untersuchung Magischer Praxen, Frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang, 1999.

15. To Gadamer, prejudices are part of the hermeneutic process as precomprehension, within the dialogic structure of the understanding/comprehending process, in which the historicity of the interpreter and its time also play an important role. Every act of interpretation is an act of comprehension. Prejudices have been negatively charged since the Enlightenment, vid. Gadamer Hans-Georg, Verdad y Método I, 8th. ed., Salamanca, Sígueme, 1999.

16. Todorov Tzvetan, Simbolismo e interpretación, 2nd. ed., Caracas, Monte Ávila, 1992, and Teorías del símbolo, Caracas, Monte Ávila, 1981. Foucault Michel, El orden del discurso, 3rd. ed., México, Tusquets, 1984, y Barthes Roland, El placer del texto, 4th. ed. México, Siglo XXI Editores, 1982.

17. Elias Norbert, Über den Prozeß der Zivilisation. Soziogenetische und psychogenetische Untersuchungen, 19th. ed., 2 volumes, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1995 [v. 1: Wandlungen des Verhaltens in den weltlichen Oberschichten des Abendlandes – v. 2: Wandlungen der Gesellschaft. Entwurf zu einer Theorie der Zivilisation]. Also, Boltanski Luc, «Taxinomies populaires, taxinomies savantes : les objets de consommation et leur classement”, en Revue française de sociologie, Vol.11, No. 1, 1970, pp. 34-44.

18. Sperber, Le symbolisme…, pp. 103-104, 109 y 117. «Les phénomènes symboliques universels n’ont pas deux interprétations contradictoires, l’une constante et universelle, l’autre variable et propre à chaque société; ils ont une structure focale universelle et un champ d’évocation variable». p. 151. (Universal symbolic phenomena don’t have two contradictory interpretations, one constant and universal and another variable and typical of each society; they have a universal focal structure and a variable field of evocation).

19. Clifford Geertz, “Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture”, in The Interpretation of Cultures. Selected Essays, New York, Basic Books, 1973, pp. 3-30.

20. Sperber, Le Symbolisme…, p. 11.

21. Bourdieu Pierre, Le sens pratique, Paris, Éditions de Minuit, Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1980.

22. Clifford Geertz, Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology, New York, Basic Books, 1983.

23. To cite only one text: Clarke Steve and Tymothy D. Lyons, Recent Themes in the Philosophy of Science: Scientific Realism and Commonsense, Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic, 2002.

24. Todorov Tzvetan, El jardín imperfecto. luces y sombras del pensamiento humanista, Barcelona, Paidós, 1999. The original French title circumscribes the reflections to France: Le Jardin Imparfait. La pensée humaniste en France (1998, Paris, Grasset & Fasquelle).

25. For another interpretation in this direction, see Foucault Michel, Las palabras y las cosas, 15th. ed., México, Siglo XXI Editores, 1984.

26. Todorov, El jardín…, pp. 35-37.

27. Todorov, El jardín…, pp. 38-39.

28. Lorite Mena José, Sociedades sin Estado. El pensamiento de los otros, Madrid, Akal, 1996.

29. Todorov Tzvetan, La conquista de América. La cuestión del otro, México, Siglo Veintiuno, 1987, and Ceballos Gómez, Diana Luz, Hechicería, brujería e Inquisición en el Nuevo Reino de Granada. Un duelo de imaginarios, 2nd. ed., Bogotá-Medellín, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 1995.

30. Bachmann-Medick Doris, Cultural Turns. Neuorientierungen in den Kulturwissenschaften, 2nd. ed., Hamburg, Rowohlt, 2007.

31. Cassirer wrote works about Descartes, Leibniz, Kant, Einstein’s theory of relativity, among others, as well as four volumes on The Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and in Modern Science and three volumes on The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms. This, of course, without considering those directly related to symbolism, cultural critique, literature…Cassirer gave conferences and had a close relationship with the Warburg-Institute in Hamburg. All three reflected on the problems of knowledge, views of the world, historicities and what Dilthey called Lebensphilosophie, philosophy of life, and, therefore, of culture, which they released from the tight barriers of cultural products or objects, in order to focus on its ways of creating, functioning, circulating and recreating or “reinventing”. Just to mention some of their works: Wilhelm Dilthey, Einleitung in die Geisteswissenschaften. Versuch einer Grundlegung für das Studium der Gesellschaft und Geschichte; Die geistige Welt. Einleitung in die Philosophie des Lebens; Der Aufbau der geschichtlichen Welt in den Geisteswissenschaften; Logik und System der philosophischen Wissenschaften. Vorlesungen zur erkenntnistheoretischen: Logik und Methodologie (1864-1903), in Complete Works, 26 volumes, Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006. Cassirer Ernst, Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit (volume 1: 1906; volume 2: 1907; volume 3: 1920; volume 4: 1957), Berlin, Verlag von Bruno Cassirer; Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff: Untersuchungen über die Grundfragen der Erkenntniskritik, Berlin, Verlag von Bruno Cassirer, 1910; Vorlesungen und Vorträge zu philosophischen Problemen der Wissenschaften (1907-1945), Hamburg, Felix Meiner Verlag, 2010; Zur Logik der Kulturwissenschaften (1942), Hamburg, Felix Meiner Verlag, 2011. Karl Mannheim, Wissenssoziologie [1929], Auswahl, Neuwied/Berlin, Luchterhand, 1964; Die Strukturanalyse der Erkenntnistheorie, Berlin, Reuther & Reichard, 1922; Strukturen des Denkens, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1980; Ideologie und Utopie [1929], 8th. ed., Frankfurt am Main, Vittorio Klostermann, 1995; Konservatismus, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1984.

32. Benjamin Walter, Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduziertbarkeit [1936], 6th. ed., Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 2003; Weber Alfred, Kulturgeschichte als Kultursoziologie, Leiden, Sijthoff, 1935; Adorno, Theodor, Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft II. Eingriffe. Stichworte, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1977; Konesmann Ralf (ed.), Kulturkritik. Reflexionen in der veränderten Welt, Leipzig, Reklam, 2001; Bausinger Hermann, Volkskunde. Von Alterstumforschung zur Kulturanalyse, Tübingen, TVV, 1979; Bausinger Hermann, Utz Jeggle, Gottfried Korff and Martin Scharfe, Grundzüege der Volkskunde, 4th. ed., Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1999; Greverus Ina-Maria, Kultur und Alltagswelt. Eine Einführung in Fragen der Kulturanthropologie, Munich, C. H. Beck, 1978; Landwehr Achim, Kulturgeschichte, Köln-Weimar-Wien, Böhlau, 2009; Maurer Michael, Kulturgeschichte. Eine Einführung, Köln-Weimar-Wien, Böhlau, 2008, Bachmann-Medick Doris, Cultural Turns... Part of the works of Cassirer and Dilthey, of Burckhardt, Lamprecht and Huizinga, among other authors of this tradition, would give an account of its history.

33. Even if Adelung is more known for his critical investigation of the German language, since he’s one of the pillars of current Germanistic and of modern dictionaries and grammars (his most know work: Grammatisch-kritisches Wörterbuch der hochdeutschen Mundart, 5 volumes, 1774-1786) and for editing, since 1772, what is considered the first periodic publication for children in German, the Leipziger Wochenblatt für Kinder (“Weekly paper for children in Leipzig”), he also wrote history (and not only cultural, he also wrote about war) and about what we could call popular traditions or Volkskunde, a “History of human Folly…, gold manufacturers, visionaries, diviners and other philosophical monsters” (Geschichte der menschlichen Narrheit, oder Lebensbeschreibungen berühmter Schwarzkünstler, Goldmacher, Teufelsbanner, Zeichen- und Liniendeuter, Schwärmer, Wahrsager, und anderer philosophischer Unholden, 7 volumes, Leipzig 1785-1789).

34. Allgemeine Geschichte der Kultur und Literatur des neuern Europa, 2 volumes, Göttingen, 1796-1799. He also wrote History of literature from its earliest times down to the present (Geschichte der Litteratur von ihrem Anfang bis auf die neuesten Zeiten, 6 volumes, Göttingen, 1805-1813. He also wrote about what we would call today a history of the present: about the French revolution (1797), the world history between 1799-1814, the history of the 19th century (1817), the history of literature, as well as a history of the latest three centuries in six volumes.

35. Other important works: Abhandlung über der Ursprung der Sprache, 1772; Briefe zur Beförderung der Humanität, 1793-97 (10 collections), and Auch eine Philosophie der Geschichte zur Bildung der Menschheit, 1774, as well as others about language, aesthetics, popular songs, German literature, art… and a Metacritique to the Critique of Pure Reason (Leipzig, 1799). The topic of the importance of language will be picked up by Sapir and Whorf in the 20th century (linguistic relativity); a hypothesis according to which language affects the view of the world and cognitive structures of speakers. For a broader scope of the aforementioned subjects, see: Berlin Isaiah, Vico and Herder. Two Studies in the History of Ideas, New York, Viking Press, 1976, y Löchte Anne, Johann Gottfried Herder. Kulturtheorie und Humanitätsidee der “Ideen”, “Humanitätsbriefe” und “Adrastea”, Würzburg, Königshausen & Neumann, 2005, especially the second part pp. 27-73.

36. Lamprecht Karl, „Die neue historische Methode“, in Historische Zeitschrift, LXXXI, 1898, pp. 193-273; Moderne Geschichtswissenschaft. Fünf Vorträge, Freiburg im Breisgau, Hermann Seyfelder, 1905 (five conferences on theories of history). During the last quarter of the 19th century, Lamprecht generated discussions, new to the discipline, that were appropriated by Huizinga, Pirenne, and Marc Bloch, who also did his doctoral training in Germany, and by Henri Berr in France. This caused what is known as the Lamprecht debate, in which this historian advocated the historic-cultural analysis that is framed in a wider debate: “the fight” for the method (Methodenstreit), which also involved discussions between members of the New Historical School of National Economics (Gustav Schmoller, Werner Sombart…) that advocated an economic analysis that took into account socio-cultural implications, and the School of Vienna. In his Inaugural Lecture as a Professor in the University of Groningen, Huizinga made reference to his approach to authors like Wilhelm Dilthey, Georg Simmel, Wilhelm Windelband, Heinrich Rickert and Eduard Spranger, all belonging to the field of culture knowledge, known thanks to Lamprecht (v. Oestreich Gerhard, “Huizinga, Lamprecht und die deutsche Geschichtsphilosophie: Huizingas Groninger Antrittsvorlesung von 1905”, in W.R.H. Koops et. al., Johan Huizinga 1872-1972, The Hague, Springer, pp. 1-28). Henri Berr, in the first issue of his Revue de Synthèse Historique, published an article about “The Kulturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft of Fribourg in Breisgau” (“The Society of Cultural Studies of Fribourg in Breisgau”) and the article “La méthode historique en Allemagne” by Lamprecht (1900, pp. 21-27), a method that he described as historical-cultural (Culturhistorische). In the article, he also referred to his text Die culturhistorische Methode, Berlin, R. Gaertner, 1900, and, among other traits, he promoted interdisciplinarity with other social sciences and the support of psychology in historians’ interpretations, aspects recollected by Annales. We can’t forget, when the initial postulates of this magazine are considered, Bloch’s education, his exchanges and discussions with Pirenne (educated with Lamprecht), Berr’s and his magazine’s influence and, of course, the model of the German magazine Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte [1903]. Seeba Hinrich C., “Interkulturelle Perspektiven. Ansätze einer vergleichenden Kulturkritik bei Karl Lamprecht und in der Exil-Germanistik“, German Studies Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, Feb., 1993, pp. 1-17. Similarly, during the 80s, while a teacher in Bonn, he left a profound mark in his students, some of which were recognized scholars with a peculiarity: they contributed to the conformation of art history as a discipline in universities, with a notorious example: Aby Warburg, founder of the Library and Institute Warburg in Hamburg and of iconology and cultural analysis of images. Brush Kathryn, “The Cultural Historian Karl Lamprecht: Practitioner and Progenitor of Art History”, Central European History, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1993, pp. 139-164.

37. Cf. Cassirer, La filosofía de la Ilustración, y Blom Philipp, Encyclopédie. El triunfo de la razón en tiempos irracionales, Barcelona, Anagrama, 2007.

38. “Culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes Knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (published in 1871, in the book by Tylor Primitive Culture). It’s worth mentioning the following works by Klemm: Allgemeine Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit (10 volumes, 1843-52, “General Cultural History of Mankind”); Allgemeine Kulturwissenschaft (2 volumes., 1854-55, “General Cultural Science”. Vol. 1: “Introduction…”; vol. 2: “Material Foundations of Human Culture”); his “Manual of Old German Manners” (Handbuch der Germanischen Alterthumskunde, 1836), and his “History of Collections for Science and Art in Germany” (Geschichte der Sammlungen für Wissenschaft und Kunst in Deutschland, 1837). A lot has been written about the definition of “culture”, without ever reaching an agreement; it is sufficient to mention some outstanding names that have addressed the issue: the ones I just mentioned in previous paragraphs, Franz Boas, Wilhelm Wundt, Norbert Elias, Lucien Fevbre, Fernand Braudel, T. S. Eliot, Alfred Kroeber y Clyde Kluckhohn, Ernst Gombrich, Clifford Geertz; Peter Burke, of course, and many others, among whom we find a good part of the anthropological production.

39. And against an attempt to use Freudian theories in anthropological analysis. See Boas Franz, “The Methods of Ethnology”, in American Anthropologist, Vol. 22, No. 4, October-December, 1920, pp. 311-322. Since the 1880s, Franz Boas reflected on the differences between cultures and on the distinctions that needed to be established against generalizing and universalists stances. He and his students introduced relativism in cultural analysis, creating an escape route that opposed the division established between civilised and primitive societies.

40. “Quien tal hace, que tal pague”. Justicia, magia y sociedad… especially Chapter 4.

41. Bourdieu Pierre, Raisons pratiques. Sur la théorie de l’action, Paris, Éditions du Seuil, 1994.

42. Bourdieu Pierre, “Le pouvoir symbolique”, in Annales. E.S.C., Year 32, No. 3, May-June 1977, pp. 405-411, and Postface à Architecture gothique et pensée scolastique by E. Panofsky, Éditions de Minuit, Paris, 1967, pp.133-167.

43. Georg Simmel, “The Sociology of Conflict. I”, in American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 9, No. 4, January, 1904, pp. 490-525. For conflict in the intellectual world and domination, see by Pierre Bourdieu, Campo de poder, campo intelectual. Itinerario de un concepto [1966, 1969, 1971, 1980], Buenos Aires, Montressor, 2002; «Les intellectuels dans le champ de la lutte des classes», in La nouvelle critique, No. 87, October, 1975, pp. 66-69; «Les modes de domination», in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol. 2, No. 2-3, 1976, pp. 122-132; “Le champ scientifique”, in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol. 2, No. 2-3, 1976, pp. 88-104; Homo academicus, Paris, Éditions de Minuit, 1984; «Champ du pouvoir et division du travail de domination. Texte manuscrit inédit ayant servi de support de cours au Collège de France, 1985-1986», in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, No. 190, Décembre, 2011, pp. 126-139; «La domination masculine», Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, No. 84, September, 1990, pp. 2-31.

44. Levi Giovanni, “Sobre Microhistoria”, in Burke Peter, Formas de hacer historia, 2nd. reprint., Madrid, Alianza, 1996, pp. 119-143; La herencia inmaterial. La historia de un exorcista piamontés del siglo XVII, Madrid, Nerea, 1990. De Ginzburg Carlo, I Benandanti. Stregoneria e culti agrari tra Cinquecento e Seicento, 3rd. ed., Torino, Einaudi, 1979; Historia nocturna. Un desciframiento del aquelarre, Barcelona, Muchnik, 1991; Miti, emblemi, spie. Morfologia e storia, 2nd. ed., Torino, Einaudi, 1992, y El hilo y las huellas. Lo verdadero, lo falso, lo ficticio, Buenos Aires, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2010.

45. Eliot T. S., Notes Towards the Definition of Culture, New York, Harcourt, Brace, 1949.

46. Todorov Tzvetan, El espíritu de la Ilustración, Barcelona, Círculo de Lectores, 2014; on the Enlightenment, cf. also: Reichardt Rolf (ed.), Aufklärung und historische Semantik. Interdisziplinäre Beiträge zur westeuropäischen Kulturgeschichte, in Zeitschrift für historische Forschung, Vierteljahresschrift zur Erforschung des Spätmittelalter u. der frühen Neuzeit, Beiheft 21 (notebook 21), 1998 (text about historical semantics and cultural history of politics during the Enlightenment), and Bäehr Andreas, Grenze der Aufklärung. Körperkonstruktionen und die Tötung des Körpers im Übergang zur Moderne, s.l., Wehrhahn, 2005; Ceballos Gómez Diana L., Poderes locales y funcionarios ilustrados: conflictos y discursos en el Virreinato del Nuevo Reino de Granada, in the process of being published.

47. Horkheimer Max and Theodor Adorno, Dialektik der Aufklärung. Philosophische Fragmente, 16th. ed., Frankfurt am Main, Fischer, 2006. See also: Marcuse Herbert, El carácter afirmativo de la cultura [1965], Buenos Aires, El Cuenco de Plata, 2011; Adorno, Theodor, Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft II. Eingriffe. Stichworte, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1977; Debray Régis and Jean Bricmont, A la sombra de la Ilustración. Debate entre un filósofo y un científico, Barcelona, Paidós, 2004, y Konesmann Ralf (ed.), Kulturkritik. Reflexionen in der Veränderten Welt, Leipzig, Reklam, 2001.

48. I refer the reader to the already referenced books by Professor Burke, Popular Culture… and Küchenlatein…, as good examples of the loss of such cultural treasures. For current processes: Jameson Fredric y Slavoj Žižek, Estudios Culturales. Reflexiones sobre el multiculturalismo, Buenos Aires, Paidós, 1998. It’s worth mentioning that reflections denominated postcolonial, decolonial or post occidental have had a long tradition in Latin America and the Caribbean, going back to the first decades of the 20th century, even if the text Orientalism by Palestinian Edward Said [1978] is commonly regarded as the first one; this is, partly, because the other books are neither written in English nor belong to the circuits of knowledge recognized at the academic forefront. It is sufficient to mention some examples: José Carlos Mariátegui, Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana (1928); Gilberto Freyre, Casa-grande & Senzala (1933); Aimé Césaire, Cahier d’un retour au payz natal (1939) and Discours sur le colonialisme (1955); Fernando Ortiz, Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y el azúcar (1940); Alfonso Reyes, Última Tule (1942); Frantz Fanon, Peau noire, masques blancs (1952); O’Gorman Edmundo, La invención de América (1958).

49. The postulates of the Enlightenment (reason and rationality, individualism, scientific method, an the ideal of progress) were established as a rule and have been the basis of later knowledge production. Only a few exceptions deviated from this course and went against the general trend; those were studied by Isaiah Berlin in the book of the same name, as well as in the posthumously edited version, with the essays dedicated to the counter-enlightened Johann Georg Hamann (1730-1788), many of which didn’t prosper and were “aborted” by the dominant intellectual model. Vid. Berlin Isaiah, Contra la corriente. Ensayos sobre historias de las ideas, México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1992, and El mago del norte. J.G. Hamann y el origen del irracionalismo moderno, Madrid, Tecnos, 1997.

50. Levi Giovanni, “Sobre Microhistoria”, in Peter Burke (Comp.), Formas de hacer historia, Madrid, Alianza, 1993, pp. 119-143.

51. For the Azande, all that happens is explained by means of witchcraft, which can also be caused involuntarily and at long distance, like evil eye in southern Europe or in America. Evans-Pritchard, Hexerei, Orakel und Magie bei den Zande, 1st. ed., Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1978; see also: Dodds, E. R., The Greeks and the Irrational, Berkeley-Los Angeles, University of California, 1951, especially Chapter V: “The Greek Shamans and the Origin of Puritanism”, pp.135-178; Lloyd Geoffrey, Magic, Reason and Experience. Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1979; Thomas Keith, Religion and the Decline of Magic. Studies in Popular Beliefs in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth- Century England, 2a. ed., 1a. reimp. (1a. ed. 1971), Londres, Penguin Books (Peregrine), 1978; Clark Stuart, Thinking with Demons. The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997; Ceballos Gómez, “Magie”, in Dictionnaire…, and “Quien tal hace, que tal pague”…; Duerr Hans-Peter (ed.), Der Wissenschaftler und das Irrationale, Vol. I, Frankfurt am Main, Syndikat, 1981; as well as Wittgenstein Ludwig, Observaciones a LA RAMA DORADA de Frazer, 3rd. ed., Madrid, Tecnos, 2008. For magical practices in contemporary Europe see: Hauschild Thomas, Der böse Blick: ideengeschichtliche und sozialpsychologische Untersuchungen, 2nd. ed. revised, Berlin, Mensch und Leben, 1982 [1st. ed. 1979]; Favret-Saada Jeanne, Les mots, la mort, les sorts, París, Gallimard, 1977; Favret-Saada Jeanne and Josée Contreras, Corps pour corps. Enquête sur la sorcellerie dans le Bocage, París, Gallimard, 1981.

52. “[...] natural conditions are not experienced. Furthermore, they don’t exist on their own because they are a function of the technique and lifestyle of the population that defines them and makes sense out of them, using them in a given direction. […] humans’ relationships with the natural environment play the role of objects of thought: humans don’t perceive them passively, they grind them after reducing them to concepts, in order to extract a system that is never predetermined: assuming the situation to be the same, it always allows for many possible systematizations”. Lévi-Strauss Claude, El pensamiento salvaje, México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, p. 142; and Hubert Henri and Marcel Mauss, “Esquisse d’une théorie générale de la magie”, L’Année Sociologique, V. 7, 1902-1903, pp. 1-146.

53. Ceballos Gómez, “Quien tal hace, que tal pague”…

54. See Vansina, Jan, Oral Tradition. A Study in Historical Methodology [1961], London, Routledge & Kegan, 1965; Ong Walter, The Presence of the Word. Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History (1st. ed. 1967) Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1986, and Orality and Literacy. The Technologizing of the Word, London-New York, Methuen, 1982; Jack Goody (ed.), Literacy in Traditional Societies, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1968; The Domestication of the Savage Mind, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977; “Civilisation de l’écriture et classification ou l’art de jouer sur les tableaux”, in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol. 2, No. 1, February, 1976. pp. 87-101, and Contradicciones y representaciones. La ambivalencia hacia las imágenes, el teatro, la ficción, las reliquias y la sexualidad, Buenos Aires, Paidós, 1999; Prins Gwyn, “Historia oral”, in Burke Peter (Comp.), Formas de hacer Historia, pp. 144-176.

55. Ceballos Gómez, Diana Luz, Hechicería, brujería…

56. Ginzburg Carlo, El queso y los gusanos. El cosmos según un molinero del siglo XVI, 2nd. ed. Barcelona, Muchnik, 1982.

57. Burke Peter, Popular Culture...; Warneken Bernd Jürgen, Die Ethnographie popularer Kulturen. Eine Einführung, Wien-Köln-Weimar, Böhlau, 2006; Chartier Roger, „‘Cultura popular’: retorno a un concepto historiográfico”, in Manuscrits, No. 12, January, 1994, pp. 43-62; Kelley Donald, „The Old Cultural History“, in History and the Human Sciences, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1996, pp. 101-126; Schröder Gerhart and Helga Breuninger (ed.), Kulturtheorien der Gegenwart. Ansätze und Positionen, Frankfurt am Main-New York, Campus Verlag, 2001; Hobsbawm Eric and Terence Ranger (ed.), The Invention of Tradition [1983], Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000; Ginzburg Carlo, Religioni delle classi popolari, Ancona, Quaderni Storici, No. 41, 1979.

58. For the case of the ruling cadres and classifications, cf.: Boltanski Luc, “Les cadres autodidactes», in Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales, Vol. 22 (Bureaucratie d’État et pouvoir des intellectuels), No. 1, 1978, pp. 3-23”; «Les systèmes de représentation d’un groupe social: les ‘cadres’», Revue française de sociologie, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 631-667; «Taxinomies sociales et luttes de classes [La mobilisation de «la classe moyenne» et l’invention des «cadres»]», in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol. 29 [Les classes-enjeux], September, 1979, pp. 75-106; «Taxinomies populaires, taxinomies savantes: les objets de consommation et leur classement».

59. The works of Bourdieu and Chartier are strongly influenced by German traditions, and in them both payed tribute to Elias. The first French translation of the first volume of Über den Prozess der Zivilisation by Norbert Elias was done in 1973 under the name La civilisation des mœurs (a title reminiscent of Voltaire? Paris, Calmann-Lévy) from the second German edition, published in Germany by Suhrkamp in 1969 (the French edition closes with a section of “Critiques et commentaires” by diverse authors and an interview of Elias, pp. 393-447). It is with this German 1969 edition that an appropriation of this work really begins. The first edition was published by Haus zum Falken of Basel Publishing House (Switzerland) in 1939. Roger Chartier, who wrote prologues for several translations of Elias’ texts into French, tells us in a special issue of the Vingtième Siècle Magazine [“Pour un usage libre et respectueux de Norbert Elias”, in Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’histoire, No. 106, february 2010 (Spécial: Norbert Elias et le 20e siècle. Le processus de civilisation à l’épreuve), pp. 37-52], that the first text in French by this author was published by Bourdieu in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales in 1976 [Norbert Elias, «Sport et violence», Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol. 2, No. 6, 1976, pp. 2-21] and that the first encounter of certain French historians (François Furet, Georges Vigarello, André Burguière, Jean-Louis Flandrin, Chartier…) with Elias was organized in Göttingen by Professor Rudolf von Thadden –Professor at the city University– in 1979. Elias was initially linked to the history of mentalities, but soon claimed his own place and was appropriated by historians such as the ones previously mentioned or such as Jacques Revel and Bernard Lacroix. Bourdieu shares the theory of habitus and field with Elias and also the idea that sociology “is characterized by a form of interpretation and not by the chronology of its objects…, mostly with the intention to define social spaces incorporated by individuals; individuals that act in the same social spaces” (p. 12, which is reminiscent of Mannheim, for whom the second worked as an assistant). His proposal restores the importance of politics, “it binds singular works to the habitus, without which they could not have been conceived, within the frame, this time, of an intellectual or aesthetic history” (p. 20).

60. Ricœur Paul, Lectures on Ideology and Utopia, New York, Columbia University Press, 1986; Educación y política. De la historia personal a la comunión de libertades, 2nd. ed., Buenos Aires, Prometeo Libros, 2009. Both La ideología alemana and Las tesis sobre Feuerbach were written by Marx and Engels around 1846, and we can’t forget that the notion of practice, of action, is restored in the second text. See also: Althousser Louis, Idéologie et appareils idéologiques d’État (Notes pour une recherche), Paris, La Pensée 15, 1970; Eagleton Terry, Ideology. An introduction, London, Verso, 1991, y After Theory, New York, Penguin, 2004; Dijk Teun A. van, Ideology. A multidisciplinary approach, London, Sage, 1998, y Bourdieu Pierre and Luc Boltanski, «La production de l’idéologie dominante», in Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, Vol. 2, No. 2-3, June, 1976, pp. 3-73.

61. «Représentations individuelles et représentations collectives”, Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale, V. 6, No. 3, May, 1898, pp. 273-302; Durkheim Émile and Marcel Mauss, «De quelques formes de classification. Contribution à l’étude des représentations collectives” [1901-1902], in L’Année Sociologique, 6, 1901-1902, pp.1-72, in http://www.uqac.uquebec.ca/zone30/Classiques_des_sciences_sociales/index.html, retrieved in may 2004. We can’t forget to note Durkheim’s neokantian roots, evident in the notion of representation. By Henri Lefebvre see: La presencia y la ausencia. Contribución a la teoría de las representaciones [1980], México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1983. As well as: Durand, Gilbert, Las estructuras antropológicas de lo imaginario. Introducción a la arquetipología general [1960], Madrid, Taurus, 1981; La imaginación simbólica [1964], Buenos Aires, Amorrortu, 1971; L’Imaginaire. Essai sur les sciences et la philosophie de l’image, Paris, Hatier, 1994; Certeau Michel de, La Culture au Pluriel, Paris Union Générale d’Éditions, 1974; La faiblesse de croire, Paris, Seuil, 1987; La possession de Loudun [1978], Paris, Gallimard-Folio, 2005; L’invention du quotidien. 1 Arts de faire, Paris, Gallimard-Folio, 1980; Delacampagne Christian, “La sociedad, lo simbólico y lo sagrado”, in Psiquiatría y opresión, Barcelona, Destino, 1978, pp. 165-191; Douglas, Mary, Natural symbols. Explorations in Cosmology [1970], 3rd. ed., New York, Pantheon, 1982; Baczko Bronislaw, Les imaginaires sociaux: mémoire et espoirs collectifs, Paris, Payot, 1984; Wilson, Deirdre & Dan Sperber, Meaning and Relevance, Cambridge University Press, 2012.

62. This matter has been the source of long discussions, lasting several years, between the School of Cambridge, especially lead by Quentin Skinner, and colleagues on both sides of the Atlantic, researchers of political languages, intellectual history and ideas, as well as analysists of language and writing in a broader sense.

63. Chartier, El mundo…, pp. iv-v.

64. Conceptual history begins with the notion of experience, as German hermeneutics does. Vid. the telling chapter “Terror y sueño” of the Third Part (On the semantics of experience’s historical change) of the book by Reinhart Koselleck, Futuro pasado. Para una semántica de los tiempos históricos [1979], Barcelona, Paidós, 1993, y Begriffsgeschichten. Studien zur Semantik und Pragmatik der politischen und sozialen Sprache, Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 2010

65. Chartier, El mundo…, p. ix y xi. Chartier proposes three underlying assumptions: 1) the individual is inscribed “in reciprocal dependences constituent of the social configurations to which he belongs”, he isn’t free: 2) he puts “in a central place the question of the articulation of works, representations and practices with the divisions of the social world that, at the same time, are incorporated and produced by thoughts and behaviours”; 3) the political isn’t autonomous, “the ways of organization and of the exercise of power, assume the equilibrium of specific tensions among social groups” and model “particular interdependence bonds, a structure of the original personality”. His work is influenced by N. Elias, because he allows the “articulation of the two meanings that are always intertwined in our use of the term culture. The first designates works and gestures that, in a given society, are concerned with aesthetic or intellectual judgement. The second certifies everyday practices; “without quality”, that weave the fabric of day to day relationships and express the way in which a singular community, in time and space, lives and reflects on its relationship with history and the world” pp. x-xi.

66. Gadamer Hans-Georg, Verdad y método…; Ricœur Paul, La metáfora viva, Ediciones Cristiandad, Madrid, 1980; Tiempo y narración. 3 volumes, México, Siglo XXI, 1995 y 1996; Teoría de la interpretación. Discurso y excedente de sentido, Siglo XXI Editores, México, 1999; Del texto a la acción, Buenos Aires, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2001; La memoria, la historia y el olvido, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Buenos Aires, 2004; Caminos del reconocimiento, Trotta, Madrid, 2005; Koselleck Reinhart and Hans-Georg Gadamer, Historia y hermenéutica, Barcelona, Paidós, 1993; Koselleck Reinhart, Estratos del tiempo.

67. François Hartog, Regímenes de historicidad. Presentismo y experiencias del tiempo, México, Universidad Iberoamericana, pp. 14-15. Now, for instance, let’s start to think about animals in a different way, to put them in a different place, even in the context of the Law, and to see ourselves also as animals, in diverse ways. As an illustration: Bailly Jean-Christophe, El animal como pensamiento, Santiago de Chile, Ediciones Metales Pesados, 2014, and Delacampagne Christian, Les animaux ont-ils des droits?, Paris, Louis Audibert, 2003.

68. A tradition that is not innocent: Weber Max, El político y el científico; Elias Norbert, Compromiso y distanciamiento, Bourdieu Pierre (standing on Marx’s, Weber’s and Elias’s shoulders), El oficio del sociólogo, and so on… Cassirer, Sperber, Eliade, Durkheim, Nietzsche, Marx...

69. Bourdieu, Cassirer, Sperber, Lefebvre, Turner…

70. Ultimately, if we step out of the inexorable dichotomy, established for the West in ancient Greece, between doxa and episteme, we could say that both, the knowledge of the ignorant and the knowledge of the literate, can aspire to scientific status. Some studies and scholars on these topics: Bachelard Gaston, La formación del espíritu científico [1934], Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI Editores, 1972; La filosofía del no [1940], Buenos Aires, Amorrortu, 1978, and Epistemología, selección de textos de Dominique Lecourt, Barcelona, Anagrama, 1971; Kuhn, Thomas S., La estructura de las revoluciones científicas [1962], México, Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1971; Popper Karl, Conjeturas y refutaciones. El desarrollo del conocimiento científico [1963], Buenos Aires, Paidós, 1980; Alexandre Koyré, Études galiléennes, Paris, Hermann, 1939; From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins Press, 1957, and Místicos, espirituales y alquimistas del siglo XVI alemán [1955], Madrid, Akal, 1981; Arthur Koestler, The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man’s Changing Vision of the Universe [1959], London, Arkana-Penguin, 1990; Canguilhem Georges, The Normal and the Pathological [1966], New York, Zone Books, 1991; etc.

71. Chartier, El mundo…, p. xi.

72. Lorite Mena José, Sociedades sin Estado…, pp. 7-8.

73. Steiner, Después de Babel...; Todorov Tzvetan, Simbolismo e interpretación…

74. See Chapter 1, “Entender es traducir” of Steiner’s book, Después de Babel...

75. Ceballos Gómez Diana L., “Leer a Peter Burke”, p. 32. See also Burke, Peter, Varieties of Cultural History, Ithaca-New York, Cornell University Press, 1997.