Читать книгу Foundations of Chemistry - Philippa B. Cranwell - Страница 4

1 Chapter 0Figure 0.1 The shape of a water molecule, H₂O.Figure 0.2 (a) 25 cm³ measuring cylinder; (b) 25 cm³ pipette; (c) 50 cm³ bur...Figure 0.3 (a) Cube of volume 1 m³. (b) Flask of volume 1 L.(c) Cube of ...

2 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Simplified structure of the atom (not to scale).Figure 1.2 (a) General representation of mass number and atomic number for t...Figure 1.3 The standard modern form of the periodic table. Source: Universit...Figure 1.4 The energy levels (EL) in an atom. The integers represent the pri...Figure 1.5 The structure of neon.Figure 1.6 (a) The 1s orbital; (b) the 2s orbital; (c) the 3s orbital.Figure 1.7 (a) The 2p_x orbital; (b) the 2p_y orbital; (c) the 2p_z orbital.Figure 1.8 (a) The d_xy orbital; (b) the d_xz orbital; (c) the d_yz orbital; (d...Figure 1.9 The relative energies of the orbitals in an atom. Relative energi...Figure 1.10 Electron arrangements in lithium, oxygen, and chlorine. Outer sh...

3 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 (a) Eight hydrogen atoms; (b) four hydrogen molecules.Figure 2.2 Bonding in sodium metal.Figure 2.3 Addition of an electron to a fluorine atom to generate a fluoride...Figure 2.4 Arrangement of electrons in (a) a sodium atom; (b) a sodium ion....Figure 2.5 Bonding in NaCl. Note: only outer‐shell electrons are shown for c...Figure 2.6 The sodium chloride lattice. Source: Based on https://www.chemgui...Figure 2.7 Salt, sodium chloride.Figure 2.8 (a) Formation of a single bond in hydrogen, H₂; (b) an alternativ...Figure 2.9 (a) Formation of a double bond in oxygen, O₂; (b) an alternative ...Figure 2.10 (a) Bonding in the ammonium ion, NH₄⁺. Note: only outer‐shell el...Figure 2.11 (a) Bonding in diamond; (b) bonding in silicon dioxide; (c) two‐...Figure 2.12 Dot‐and‐cross diagram for beryllium chloride, BeCl₂ showing two ...Figure 2.13 A linear centre in carbon dioxide, CO₂.Figure 2.14 (a) Bonding in boron trichloride, BCl₃ with a trigonal planar ce...Figure 2.15 (a) Bonding in C₂H₄, ethene with trigonal planar centre; (b) sho...Figure 2.16 (a) Bonding angles in a tetrahedral bonding centre; (b) bonding ...Figure 2.17 (a) Bonding angles in a trigonal bipyramidal molecule; (b) phosp...Figure 2.18 (a) Bonding angles in an octahedral molecule; (b) sulfur hexaflu...Figure 2.19 Common shapes of simple covalent molecules.Figure 2.20 Periodic table showing Pauling electronegativity of most of the ...Figure 2.21 (a) A pair of electrons shared evenly between two atoms with the...Figure 2.22 (a) A pair of electrons shared unevenly between two atoms with d...Figure 2.23 Polar covalent bonds in (a) hydrogen chloride, HCl and (b) carbo...Figure 2.24 Hydrogen chloride molecule showing the charge separation and dir...Figure 2.25 Chloromethane, CH₃Cl, is a polar molecule.Figure 2.26 Carbon dioxide has polar bonds but no overall dipole moment.Figure 2.27 (a) Overall molecular dipole in fluoromethane; (b) overall molec...Figure 2.28 Comparison of inter‐ and intramolecular forces.Figure 2.29 Permanent dipoles in the hydrogen chloride molecule and resultan...Figure 2.30 (a) Chlorine molecule with even distribution of charge; (b) Chlo...Figure 2.31 (a) Helium atom (Z = 2) showing even distribution of electrons; ...Figure 2.32 (a) Formation of a hydrogen bond between two molecules of water ...Figure 2.33 (a) Hydrogen bonding between two ethanol, C₂H₅OH, molecules; (b)...

4 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 The same number of different types of fruit have different masses...Figure 3.2 A solute and a solvent are combined to form a solution.

5 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Molecules of water in the solid, liquid, and gas states.Figure 4.2 The change in state from solid to liquid and then to gas for wate...Figure 4.3 Metallic bonding in sodium.Figure 4.4 Ionic lattices. (a) Sodium chloride, NaCl.(b) Calcium fluorid...Figure 4.5 Space‐filling diagram for sodium chloride showing space occupied ...Figure 4.6 (a) The structure of graphite.(b) The structure of diamond. (...Figure 4.7 Movement of molecules from a liquid in a closed container. (a) Th...Figure 4.8 Comparison of boiling points in (Z)‐ and (E)‐dichloroethene.Figure 4.9 Comparison of boiling points of n‐hexane and 2,2‐dimethylbutane....Figure 4.10 Hydrogen bonding between water molecules.Figure 4.11 Group 6 (16) hydrides.Figure 4.12 Boiling points of hydrides of Groups 4 (14), 5 (15), 6 (16), and...Figure 4.13 Ice crystals.Figure 4.14 Coastal regions are kept cool by the high heat capacity of water...Figure 4.15 Hydrogen bonding between base pairs in DNA.Figure 4.16 Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas is inversely proport...Figure 4.17 Charles's law states that as the temperature of a fixed number o...Figure 4.18 The large cube has a volume of 1 m³. The sides of the small cube...Figure 4.19 The Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales.

6 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Electron arrangements in a Mg atom and Mg²⁺ ion.Figure 5.2 Electron arrangements in an O atom and O²⁻ ion.Figure 5.3 (a) The international pictogram for an oxidising agent; (b) safet...

7 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Fireworks release energy in the form of heat, light, and sound....Figure 6.2 Energy flow in exothermic and endothermic reactions.Figure 6.3 Reaction pathways for (a) an exothermic reaction; (b) an endother...Figure 6.4 A polystyrene cup and lid used as a calorimeter.Figure 6.5 Plot of temperature against time for a simple calorimeter, showin...Figure 6.6 Sodium chloride lattice dissolving in water.Figure 6.7 A simple flame calorimeter.Figure 6.8 A bomb calorimeter.Figure 6.9 Graphical representation of Hess's law. The enthalpy change for d...Figure 6.10 Hess's law cycle to determine the enthalpy of formation of C₂H₅O...Figure 6.11 Representation of the reaction between oxygen (1 mole) and hydro...Figure 6.12 Reaction pathway showing the energy of intermediates in the tran...Figure 6.13 General energy triangle used to calculate lattice enthalpy for a...Figure 6.14 General Born–Haber diagram for the calculation of lattice enthal...Figure 6.15 A Hess's law cycle to calculate the lattice enthalpy of formatio...Figure 6.16 Born–Haber diagram for calculating the lattice enthalpy of forma...Figure 6.17 Born–Haber cycle for calculating the lattice enthalpy of formati...Figure 6.18 The charge density on a Li⁺ ion is greater than that on a larger...Figure 6.19 (a) Lattice enthalpy of formation for Group 1 chlorides; (b) lat...Figure 6.20 Polarisation of an anion (−ve) by a small, highly charged cation...Figure 6.21 Sherbet Fountain is composed of citric acid and sodium hydrogen ...Figure 6.22 A student bedroom tends to a maximum state of disorder and maxim...

8 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 The rates of the forward and backward reactions are equal once th...Figure 7.2 Plot of concentrations of reactants (A and B) and products (C and...Figure 7.3 Effect of changing the external pressure on the dinitrogen tetrox...Figure 7.4 The N₂O₄ ⇌ 2NO₂ equilibrium at different temperatures. An increas...Figure 7.5 The pH scale showing the typical colour of universal indicator in...Figure 7.6 Using a pH meter to measure hydrogen ion concentration.Figure 7.7 Titration apparatus.Figure 7.8 Plot of pH change in the titration of a strong acid against a str...Figure 7.9 Colour changes of some common indicators.Figure 7.10 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a strong aci...Figure 7.11 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a weak acid ...Figure 7.12 Plot of pH against volume of base in a titration of a strong aci...Figure 7.13 Plot of pH against volume of acid in a titration of a weak acid ...

9 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Plot of the concentration of A and B against time for the reactio...Figure 8.2 Apparatus to measure the amount of gas produced in a reaction ove...Figure 8.3 The reaction of NO₂ with F₂: (a) successful collision leading to ...Figure 8.4 Energy profile for an exothermic reaction.Figure 8.5 Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies.Figure 8.6 Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies at two different tem...Figure 8.7 Energy profile for a catalysed (red) and uncatalysed (blue) react...Figure 8.8 Plot of concentration of reactant A against time.Figure 8.9 Plot of [Br₂] against time with a tangent drawn at t = 150 second...Figure 8.10 Plot of rate against concentration of Br₂.Figure 8.11 Plots of concentration against time for a zero‐, first‐, and sec...Figure 8.12 (a) Plot of rate against concentration for a zero‐order reaction...Figure 8.13 Integrated rate expression plots: (a) plot of [A]_t against time ...Figure 8.14 Determination of the half‐life of a first‐order reaction.Figure 8.15 The half‐life of a zero‐order reaction decreases through the rea...Figure 8.16 The half‐life of a second‐order reaction increases through the r...Figure 8.17 An Arrhenius plot for the decomposition of nitrogen dioxide, NO₂

10 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 The Cu²⁺/Cu half‐cell.Figure 9.2 Two half‐cells connected together to form an electrochemical cell...Figure 9.3 Standard hydrogen electrode.Figure 9.4 Measuring the standard reduction potential of a Cu²⁺(aq)/Cu(s) ha...Figure 9.5 A Cl₂(g)/Cl⁻(aq) and Fe²⁺(aq)/Fe(s) electrochemical cell.Figure 9.6 A variety of alkaline batteries that are examples of galvanic cel...Figure 9.7 Sections through (a) a carbon–zinc battery; (b) a zinc–manganese(...Figure 9.8 Lithium‐ion batteries.Figure 9.9 Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell.Figure 9.10 Schematic diagram of an electrolytic cell.

11 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Periodic table showing periods and groups with different areas s...Figure 10.2 Electron filling of shells in magnesium and calcium.Figure 10.3 The atomic radius (r) of an atom is defined as half the distance...Figure 10.4 The atomic radii of Group 2 elements.Figure 10.5 First ionisation energy of Group 2 elements.Figure 10.6 Electronegativity values of Group 7 (17) elements (Pauling scale...Figure 10.7 Atomic radii of the elements in Period 2.Figure 10.8 Trends in atomic radius across and down the periodic table.Figure 10.9 First ionisation energy of the elements in Periods 2 and 3.Figure 10.10 Electronegativity values (Pauling) for Period 2 and Period 3 el...Figure 10.11 Trends in electronegativity across the periodic table. Note tha...Figure 10.12 Comparative sizes of Na and Na⁺ (not to scale).Figure 10.13 Comparative sizes of F and F⁻ (not to scale).Figure 10.14 Variation in the radius of stable ions of Period 3 elements.

12 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 The periodic table with the different areas shaded.Figure 11.2 The elements (a) lithium (freshly cut), (b) sodium (under minera...Figure 11.3 Atomic radii for the Group 1 metals, showing increase down the g...Figure 11.4 First ionisation energies of the Group 1 metals showing decrease...Figure 11.5 Melting points of the Group 1 metals.Figure 11.6 Comparison of the atomic radii of Group 1 and Group 2 metals.Figure 11.7 Sum of the first and second ionisation energies of Group 2 eleme...Figure 11.8 Melting points of the Group 2 elements.Figure 11.9 Enthalpy changes occurring when an ionic solid dissolves in wate...Figure 11.10 Hydrated sodium and chloride ions, as in an aqueous solution of...Figure 11.11 (a) Pure ionic bonding between a metal cation and anion; (b) an...Figure 11.12 (a) Delocalisation in the carbonate ion makes all C—O bonds equ...Figure 11.13 Sharing of electrons in Cl₂ and covalent bond formation.Figure 11.14 Electronegativities of the Group 7(17) elements.Figure 11.15 Bond enthalpies of the Group 7(17) elements.Figure 11.16 (a) Lone pairs in a F₂ molecule; (b) repulsion between lone pai...Figure 11.17 Atomic radii of the elements in Period 4.Figure 11.18 First ionisation energy of the elements in Period 4.Figure 11.19 Coordination complexes: (a) TiCl₄; (b) Cl⁻ donating a lon...Figure 11.20 (a) A complex containing a central metal atom with six ligands;...Figure 11.21 (a) A complex containing a central metal atom with four ligands...Figure 11.22 A complex containing a central metal atom with four ligands in ...Figure 11.23 (a) [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺ a linear coordination complex with coordination...Figure 11.24 Colours of some first‐row transition metal complexes in aqueous...Figure 11.25 Absorption of red wavelengths from visible light by a solution....Figure 11.26 (a) Five d orbitals have equal energy in a free ion. (b) When s...

13 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 The different ways that ethanoic acid is represented by each typ...Figure 12.2 Display and skeletal formulae for some simple organic compounds....Figure 12.3 Some members of the alcohol homologous series.Figure 12.4 (a) The structure of morphine; (b) the structure of propan‐2‐one...Figure 12.5 The structure and names of some commonly encountered functional ...Figure 12.6 The two component parts of an ester. The ester group itself is h...Figure 12.7 Chain isomers of C₄H₁₀.Figure 12.8 (a) Butane molecules; (b) 2‐methylpropane molecules.Figure 12.9 Positional isomers of butanol, C₄H₁₀O.Figure 12.10 Functional groups isomers of C₂H₆O.Figure 12.11 The difference E and Z (trans and cis) isomers.Figure 12.12 A brief summary of the hierarchy of priority when using Cahn–In...Figure 12.13 The R and S forms of valine.Figure 12.14 The R and S forms of thalidomide.Figure 12.15 A scheme to summarise the different types of isomerism discusse...Figure 12.16 A figure depicting the different types of arrows used within or...Figure 12.17 (a) Curly arrows showing the attack of iodide to a positive car...Figure 12.18 Examples of some electrophiles. (a) A carbocation: in this case...Figure 12.19 Examples of some nucleophiles. (a) A carbanion: in this case, t...Figure 12.20 Examples of radical species. Note that the radical is always sh...Figure 12.21 Electrophilic addition of bromine to pent‐1‐ene.Figure 12.22 Nucleophilic addition of hydride to pentanal.Figure 12.23 Electrophilic aromatic substitution of benzene with chlorine.Figure 12.24 Nucleophilic substitution of 1‐chloropropane with iodide to giv...Figure 12.25 Elimination of HCl in 1‐chloropropane to give prop‐1‐ene.Figure 12.26 Condensation of water with ethanoyl chloride to give ethanoic a...

14 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 (a) A fractionating column.(b) The fractions.Figure 13.2 (a) The bonding between two atoms of chlorine in the molecule ClFigure 13.3 Curly arrows showing the movement of electrons in radical substi...Figure 13.4 Naturally occurring alkenes linoleic acid and limonene.Figure 13.5 (a) A sigma (σ) bond and an electron cloud; (b) the structure of...Figure 13.6 The electron clouds in chloromethane and how they are distended ...Figure 13.7 (a) The p orbitals on ethene and their overlap to form a π bond;...Figure 13.8 (a) Two test tubes, the left containing a mixture of bromine wat...Figure 13.9 Reaction of bromine with ethene.Figure 13.10 Reaction of bromine water with ethene.Figure 13.11 Reaction of prop‐1‐ene with HBr.Figure 13.12 Curly arrows to show the reaction of prop‐1‐ene with HBr.Figure 13.13 Curly arrows to show an alternative reaction of prop‐1‐ene with...Figure 13.14 Stability of carbocations.Figure 13.15 Reaction between prop‐1‐ene, phosphoric acid, and water.Figure 13.16 Reaction of an alkene with hydrogen in the presence of a metal ...Figure 13.17 (a) A molecule of ethyne; (b) the p orbitals on ethyne and how ...Figure 13.18 (a) Reduction of but‐2‐yne to propane with hydrogen and palladi...

15 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 (a) Hydrogen bonding between two ethanol molecules; (b) hydrogen...Figure 14.2 Structure of the primary alcohols ethanol, propan‐1‐ol, butan‐1‐...Figure 14.3 Structure of a secondary alcohol, propan‐2‐ol. Note that in a sk...Figure 14.4 Structure of a tertiary alcohol, 2‐methylpropan‐2‐ol.Figure 14.5 Possible oxidation states of primary alcohols.Figure 14.6 Oxidation of ethanol to ethanal or ethanoic acid using acidified...Figure 14.7 The dichromate(VI) ion is reduced to chromium(III) when it is us...Figure 14.8 Oxidation of a secondary alcohol.Figure 14.9 Nucleophilic addition into an aldehyde with KCN.Figure 14.10 Test for an aldehyde with Brady's reagent (2,4‐DNPH).Figure 14.11 Test for an aldehyde with Tollen's reagent (silver mirror test)...Figure 14.12 Hydrogen bonding between a carboxylic acid and water.Figure 14.13 (a) The acidic proton in a carboxylic acid; (b) reaction of but...Figure 14.14 Reduction of butanoic acid to butan-1-ol with lithium aluminium...Figure 14.15 (a) Identification of the ester group; (b) naming an ester; (c)...Figure 14.16 (a) Cleavage of an ester under acidic conditions; (b) cleavage ...Figure 14.17 Reaction of a carboxylic acid and an amine to make a salt.Figure 14.18 (a) Reaction of an acid chloride and an amine to make an amide;...Figure 14.19 (a) Cleavage of an amide under acidic conditions; (b) cleavage ...Figure 14.20 An amide and the different classes of amine.Figure 14.21 Reaction of ethylamine with hydrochloric acid to give the ethyl...Figure 14.22 Reaction between chloroethane and ammonia to give ethylamine.Figure 14.23 (a) A nitrile; (b) reduction of a nitrile to an amine; (c) hydr...Figure 14.24 Reaction of chloroethane with sodium cyanide to give propanenit...

16 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 (a) Benzene represented using a display formula; (b) benzene rep...Figure 15.2 Commonly encountered benzene‐containing compounds. Trivial names...Figure 15.3 Examples of benzene‐containing compounds containing two substitu...Figure 15.4 Heat of hydrogenation of cyclohexene, benzene, 1,3‐cyclohexadien...Figure 15.5 (a) Bromination of ethene; (b) bromination of benzene, which req...Figure 15.6 (a) A double bond represented by two lines; (b) a representation...Figure 15.7 (a) Curly arrows to show the electrons moving to the extreme for...Figure 15.8 (a) Electrons pulled towards electronegative fluorine to create ...Figure 15.9 Commonly encountered activating and deactivating substituents.Figure 15.10 (a) Reaction of benzene with chlorine in the presence of AlCl₃;...Figure 15.11 Reaction of benzene with chlorine in the presence of aluminium(...Figure 15.12 Reaction of benzene with 2‐chloropropane in the presence of alu...Figure 15.13 Reaction of benzene with ethanoyl chloride in the presence of a...Figure 15.14 Reaction of nitric acid with H⁺ in sulfuric acid to generate th...Figure 15.15 Reaction of benzene with the nitronium ion to generate nitroben...Figure 15.16 (a) The named positions on a benzene ring in relation to a subs...Figure 15.17 (a) Phenol; (b) donation of a lone pair of electrons on oxygen ...Figure 15.18 Reaction of nitrobenzene with an alkyl chloride in the presence...Figure 15.19 (a) Aniline; (b) formation of aniline by reduction of nitrobenz...Figure 15.20 Reaction of diazobenzene with phenol to give an azo‐dye.

17 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Substitution of 2‐bromopropane with sodium hydroxide to give pro...Figure 16.2 (a) Overall reaction for substitution of 2‐iodo‐2‐methylpropane ...Figure 16.3 (a) Overall reaction for substitution of iodoethane with sodium ...Figure 16.4 An elimination reaction from the treatment of 2‐bromo‐2‐methylpr...Figure 16.5 The mechanism of an E1 elimination from the treatment of 2-bromo...Figure 16.6 (a) Overall reaction between 1‐bromopropane and NaOH to give pro...

18 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 (a) Reduction of a ketone to give an alcohol. (b) Conversion of ...

19 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Combination of many monomers to give a polymer.Figure 18.2 (a) Combination of many ethene monomers to give polyethene. The ...Figure 18.3 (a) A hypothetical polyester. The repeat unit is highlighted; (b...Figure 18.4 (a) Combination of a 1,2‐diol and a diacyl chloride to give a po...

20 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 A simple schematic of a mass spectrometer.Figure 19.2 Stretching and bending vibrations from absorbing infrared radiat...Figure 19.3 The infrared spectrum of propan‐1‐ol with the characteristic O—H...Figure 19.4 A illustrative section of the ¹H NMR spectrum for ethyl acetate ...Figure 19.5 A visual representation of the chemical shifts (δ) of protons in...Figure 19.6 Pascal’s triangle showing the relative intensities of the peaks ...