Читать книгу Essentials of Nuclear Medicine Physics, Instrumentation, and Radiation Biology - Rachel A. Powsner - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Electrostatic charge.Figure 1.2 The NaCl molecule is the smallest unit of salt that retains the c...Figure 1.3 Periodic table.Figure 1.4 Flat atom. The standard two‐dimensional drawing of atomic structu...Figure 1.5 An electron shell is a representation of the energy level associa...Figure 1.6 K, L, and M electron shells.Figure 1.7 Electron orbitals and sub‐orbitals. (a) s orbital, (b) p suborbit...Figure 1.8 The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons.Figure 1.9 Nuclear binding force is strong enough to overcome the electrical...Figure 1.10 Standard atomic notation.Figure 1.11 Nuclides of the same atomic number but different atomic mass are...Figure 1.12 Combinations of neutrons and protons that can coexist in a stabl...Figure 1.13 Alpha decay.Figure 1.14 Fission of a ²³⁵U nucleus.Figure 1.15 β^– (negatron) decay.Figure 1.16 β⁺ (positron) decay.Figure 1.17 Beta emissions (both β^– and β⁺) are ejected from the nucle...Figure 1.18 Electron capture.Figure 1.19 Isomeric transition. Excess nuclear energy is carried off as a g...Figure 1.20 Internal conversion. As an alternative to gamma emission, it can...Figure 1.21 Decay schematics.Figure 1.22 Decay schemes showing principal transitions for technetium‐99m, ...Figure 1.23 Decay curve. Note the progressive replacement of radioactive ato...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Predominant type of interaction for various combinations of incid...Figure 2.2 Compton scattering.Figure 2.3 Angle of photon scattering.Figure 2.4 Photoelectric effect.Figure 2.5 Attenuation.Figure 2.6 The amount of attenuation of a photon beam is dependent on the ph...Figure 2.7 Penetrating radiation and nonpenetrating radiation.Figure 2.8 Excitation and de‐excitation.Figure 2.9 Ionization. The ejected electron and the positively charged atom ...Figure 2.10 Particle range in an absorber.Figure 2.11 Annihilation reaction.Figure 2.12 Einstein’s theory of the equivalence of energy and mass.Figure 2.13 Bremsstrahlung. Beta particles (β^–) and positrons (β⁺) tha...Figure 2.14 Bremsstrahlung X‐ray energies increase with increasing proximity...Figure 2.15 Bremsstrahlung X‐ray energies vary from near zero to the maximum...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 ⁹⁹mTechnetium generator.Figure 3.2 Transient equilibrium.Figure 3.3 Transient equilibrium in a ⁹⁹Mo–^99mTc generator.Figure 3.4 Secular equilibrium.Figure 3.5 Cyclotron.Figure 3.6 Schematic of a nuclear reactor.Figure 3.7 Chain reaction involving ²³⁵U and slow neutrons.Figure 3.8 Neutron capture by target nuclide placed in a reactor. Thermal (s...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Simple gas‐filled detector.Figure 4.2 The presence of ionizing radiation is detected by a deflection of...Figure 4.3 Current as a function of applied voltage in a gas detector. The r...Figure 4.4 Proportional counter. The voltage causes gas amplification that g...Figure 4.5 Geiger counter. The primary radiation rapidly triggers a cascade ...Figure 4.6 Continuous discharge. The voltage applied to a neon sign is high ...Figure 4.7 Ionization by alpha and beta particles and by photons in the gas‐...Figure 4.8 Geometric efficiency of detectors. The closer the detector is to ...Figure 4.9 Dose calibrator.Figure 4.10 Pocket dosimeter. Ions produced in the gas neutralize the charge...Figure 4.11 Geiger probe.Figure 4.12 Quenching. Top: Filler atoms absorb extra energy in addition to ...Figure 4.13 (a) Pure silicon crystal with shared outer shell electrons. (b) ...Figure 4.14 Depletion zone is created after the free electrons and positive ...Figure 4.15 The depletion zone is widened by the application of a high volta...Figure 4.16 An incoming photon impacts an atom in the depletion zone causing...Figure 4.17 Each cell within the silicon photomultiplier is composed of a si...Figure 4.18 The large number of cells within a silicon photomultiplier resul...Figure 4.19 Film badge. The strips of metal absorbers assist in estimating t...Figure 4.20 Luminescent crystals: (a) Photons strike crystal. (b) Electrons ...Figure 4.21 Luminescent crystals without (a) and with “doping” (b). Atoms us...Figure 4.22 Thermoluminescent and optically luminescent crystals. (a) Photon...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Scintillation crystal. The sodium iodide crystal “doped” with a t...Figure 5.2 Light photons. (a) Gamma rays eject electrons from the crystal th...Figure 5.3 Thick crystals stop a larger fraction of the photons.Figure 5.4 Sodium iodide crystal scintillation detector.Figure 5.5 Photomultiplier tube and its amplifier.Figure 5.6 Pulse‐height analyzer. The incoming pulse (Z‐pulse) is proportion...Figure 5.7 Blurring of photopeak due in part to statistical variation in the...Figure 5.8 Compton peak (edge).Figure 5.9 Iodine escape peak.Figure 5.10 Annihilation peaks.Figure 5.11 Coincidence peak for ¹¹¹In equals the sum of the individual phot...Figure 5.12 The effect of water on the ⁵¹Cr energy spectrum.Figure 5.13 Thyroid probe. Shielded crystal scintillation detector as used f...Figure 5.14 Well counter. Crystal scintillation detector constructed with an...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Components of a standard nuclear medicine imaging system.Figure 6.2 Collimator detail.Figure 6.3 A collimator selects photons perpendicular to the plane of the co...Figure 6.4 Without a collimator, angled photons introduce improperly located...Figure 6.5 For the same bore length, the smaller the diameter the higher the...Figure 6.6 For the same hole diameter, the longer the bore the higher the re...Figure 6.7 Angle of acceptance. The narrower the angle of acceptance of a co...Figure 6.8 Higher energy photons can pass through thinner collimator septa (...Figure 6.9 Blurring of a line source.Figure 6.10 Full‐width at half‐maximum and full‐width at tenth‐maximum.Figure 6.11 Modulation transfer function.Figure 6.12 Parallel‐hole collimator.Figure 6.13 Converging collimator.Figure 6.14 Diverging collimator.Figure 6.15 Pinhole collimator.Figure 6.16 (a) In a converging collimator, holes converge toward the patien...Figure 6.17 Scattering of photons in a thicker crystal reduces resolution.Figure 6.18 The positioning algorithm improves image resolution. The closer ...Figure 6.19 Pixel address: column number, row number.Figure 6.20 Storing image data in a matrix.Figure 6.21 Effect of matrix configuration on image resolution.Figure 6.22 A matrix cannot resolve points separated by less than 1 pixel.Figure 6.23 Bone scan.Figure 6.24 Sixty‐second renal flow study.Figure 6.25 Gastrointestinal bleeding scan.Figure 6.26 Gated blood pool study.

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 SPECT camera.Figure 7.2 Two‐headed SPECT camera configurations.Figure 7.3 Projection views from a SPECT acquisition.Figure 7.4 Five‐view planar liver–spleen scan.Figure 7.5 180° cardiac SPECT.Figure 7.6 Step‐and‐shoot acquisition.Figure 7.7 Continuous acquisition.Figure 7.8 Circular, elliptical, and body contouring orbits.Figure 7.9 (a) Slices through the level of the heart from selected projectio...Figure 7.10 Sinograms at selected positions along the long axis of the body ...Figure 7.11 Effects of patient motion in the X‐ and Y‐directions on sinogram...Figure 7.12 First, third, fifth rows: artifacts created by patient motion (a...Figure 7.13 Newer cardiac SPECT cameras. (a) Multiple heads. (b) Stationary ...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Annihilation reaction.Figure 8.2 Line of response and examples of coincident events.Figure 8.3 Singles events.Figure 8.4 Random events.Figure 8.5 Time‐of‐flight PET systems.Figure 8.6 Current limitation in time‐of‐flight technology.Figure 8.7 PET camera.Figure 8.8 Slits between crystals direct light photons toward PMTs.Figure 8.9 A coincident event is accepted after processing by the pulse heig...Figure 8.10 One of a pair of annihilation photons is scattered and their dat...Figure 8.11 Random events can “pass” as true coincidence events.Figure 8.12 Two‐dimensional and three‐dimensional PET imaging.Figure 8.13 Factors limiting resolution in PET imaging. (a) The positron tra...Figure 8.14 (a and b). Parallax error affects resolution near periphery of f...Figure 8.15 Attenuation is constant across a line connecting two detectors....

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Basic components of an X‐ray tube.Figure 9.2 X‐rays are generated when electrons strike the tungsten target.Figure 9.3 X‐ray spectrumFigure 9.4 The filter attenuates the lower energy X‐rays (depicted as short ...Figure 9.5 Basic components of one type of CT scanner containing a stationar...Figure 9.6 Rotate–stationary configuration. A rotating source and collimator...Figure 9.7 Rotate–rotate configuration. Opposing source and detector rotate ...Figure 9.8 Multislice CT detector array composed of multiple rows of detecto...Figure 9.9 Grouping detector rows allows acquisition of slices of varying wi...Figure 9.10 Axial versus helical scanning.Figure 9.11 Pitch.Figure 9.12 Cone beam CT. A large flat panel detector is combined with a con...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Spin (angular momentum) is represented by a vertical arrow throu...Figure 10.2 Current direction is denoted as moving in the opposite direction...Figure 10.3 Moving electric charge through a straight wire creates a circumf...Figure 10.4 Moving electric charge through a wire coil creates a nearly line...Figure 10.5 The spin angular momentum and the magnetic moment of a subatomic...Figure 10.6 (a) Sum magnetization of a sample of protons is zero until (b) a...Figure 10.7 The external magnetic field causes M to precess or wobble around...Figure 10.8 Application of a 90‐degree radiofrequency pulse perpendicular to...Figure 10.9 Following the RF pulse M precesses in the X‐Y plane (therefore i...Figure 10.10 180‐degree radiofrequency pulse. Top image: A longer RF pulse t...Figure 10.11 The precessing magnetic vector (M_XY) generates an electric curr...Figure 10.12 T1 recovery after the radiofrequency pulse. T1 is the time it t...Figure 10.13 T2 recovery. (a) Synchrony between the precessing spins during ...Figure 10.14 A 180‐degree radiofrequency pulse is used to reverse T2* decay....Figure 10.15 Inversion recovery. An initial 180‐degree RF pulse inverts M al...Figure 10.16 Top: MRI without gradient coils—uniform B₀ down the length of t...Figure 10.17 (a) Frequency encoding. Gradient coils along the X‐axis of the ...Figure 10.18 (a) The X‐gradient remains on and the slice is subjected to a v...Figure 10.19 Transaxial slice of a brain MRI study: T1‐weighted, T2‐weighted...Figure 10.20 Schematic of an MRI scanner.

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 PET‐CT.Figure 11.2 PET‐CT. (a) The entire CT scan is acquired, followed by (b) the ...Figure 11.3 SPECT‐CT. (a) Two gantry system with CT contained within one gan...Figure 11.4 PET‐MRI. (a) Older scanner design with shielding between the MRI...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Projection views of a liver are backprojected to create transaxi...Figure 12.2 Acquisition of projection views (as numerical arrays) of a disk....Figure 12.3 Projection views of the disk are backprojected.Figure 12.4 Star and backprojection “blur” artifact.Figure 12.5 Statistical variation in counts.Figure 12.6 Nine‐point smoothing.Figure 12.7 Weighted nine‐point smoothing.Figure 12.8 Nine‐point smoothing using kernels with central weights of 10 an...Figure 12.9 Edge‐enhancing filter in numerical form.Figure 12.10 Backprojection following application of an edge‐enhancing filte...Figure 12.11 Graphic representation of an edge‐enhancing filter.Figure 12.12 The use of sine waves to represent an image: a key step in the ...Figure 12.13 Sine waves used to approximate the image of rectangles seen in ...Figure 12.14 Frequency spectrum.Figure 12.15 The Nyquist frequency of 0.5 cycles/pixel is the smallest disce...Figure 12.16 The Nyquist frequency expressed in cycles/cm.Figure 12.17 Effect of the ramp and combination low‐pass and ramp filter on ...Figure 12.18 Graphic interpretation of the effects of low‐pass and high‐pass...Figure 12.19 Characteristics of commonly used low‐pass filters.Figure 12.20 The Butterworth and Hann windows (or prefilters) can be modifie...Figure 12.21 Sample images of reconstructed bone scan using Butterworth filt...Figure 12.22 Attenuation of photons.Figure 12.23 Attenuation correction using a calculated attenuation map.Figure 12.24 Transmission image using a rotating gamma emitting source.Figure 12.25 Attenuation coefficient scaling factors for ¹⁸F PET based on CT...Figure 12.26 Original and estimated projection views for iterative reconstru...Figure 12.27 (a) Projection views from the first estimate are compared to th...Figure 12.28 Progression of five iterations.Figure 12.29 Resolution improves with increasing iterations.Figure 12.30 Iterative reconstruction incorporating image degradation factor...Figure 12.31 Transaxial, sagittal, and coronal images.Figure 12.32 Oblique views of the heart.Figure 12.33 CT image contrast enhancement using variable windowing based on...Figure 12.34 Nuclear medicine maximum intensity projection (MIP) image. The ...Figure 12.35 Maximum intensity projection (MIP) CT image collapses most inte...Figure 12.36 Maximum intensity projection image for lung CT image accentuate...Figure 12.37 Skeletal tissue from a CT scan displayed using surface renderin...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Simplified network diagram for a radiology department.Figure 13.2 DICOM information object containing image and header.Figure 13.3 DICOM objects are grouped in series which are then grouped toget...Figure 13.4 Schematic of the information exchange between components of the ...

14 Chapter 14Figure 14.1 Linearity sleeves.Figure 14.2 Variation in sample geometry.Figure 14.3 Nonuniformity due to off‐center energy windows. (Images courtesy...Figure 14.4 Uniform flood field.Figure 14.5 Defective photomultiplier tube.Figure 14.6 Cracked crystal.Figure 14.7 Nonuniformity due to a drift in circuitry.Figure 14.8 Uniformity analysis image. The acquired image of the flood sourc...Figure 14.9 Uniformity correction matrix.Figure 14.10 Bar phantom.Figure 14.11 Degradation of resolution with distance.Figure 14.12 Ring artifact created during backprojection of an area of nonun...Figure 14.13 Deviation of the mechanical COR.Figure 14.14 COR curves in the x direction.Figure 14.15 Normal and abnormal COR tests.Figure 14.16 Image of a Jaszczak phantom. The top two rows contain cross‐sec...Figure 14.17 PET Daily QC image. (a) Multiple tests (one per labeled row) ar...Figure 14.18 Image of PET phantom. The top three rows contain cross‐sectiona...Figure 14.19 Regions of interest used to calculate CT number uniformity and ...Figure 14.20 Slice of a phantom used to determine CT number accuracy over a ...

15 Chapter 15Figure 15.1 The structure of chromosomes and DNA.Figure 15.2 Single strand and double strand breaks.Figure 15.3 Direct and indirect action.Figure 15.4 During indirect action the hydroxyl free radical interacts with ...Figure 15.5 The cell cycle and relative radiosensitivity.Figure 15.6 Cell survival curves for low and high‐LET radiation.Figure 15.7 Effect of dose rate on cell survival for low‐LET radiation.Figure 15.8 Oxygen binds to damaged DNA.Figure 15.9 Effects of oxygenation on cell survival during low‐LET radiation...

16 Chapter 16Figure 16.1 Time–activity curve, cumulative activity, and residence time.Figure 16.2 Source and target organs.Figure 16.3 Measurement of CTDI. (a) A dosimeter placed in the center of the...

17 Chapter 17Figure 17.1 Exposure decreases as a function of distance from the source.Figure 17.2 Exposure decreases as the square of the distance from the source...

18 Chapter 18Figure 18.1 Radiopharmaceutical structure. Top: ¹³¹I is part of an ionic com...Figure 18.2 The thyroid incorporates iodide into thyroid hormones which are ...Figure 18.3 Left: The gamma emissions of ¹²³I are used to create images of t...Figure 18.4 Collagen is secreted by osteoblastic cells. Hydroxyapatite is in...Figure 18.5 Decay scheme of ²²³Ra.Figure 18.6 ²²³Ra and ^99mTc‐DP compounds are incorporated into hydroxyapatit...Figure 18.7 Hepatic artery and portal vein blood supply to the liver.Figure 18.8 Decay scheme of ⁹⁰Y.Figure 18.9 Introduction of radiolabeled microspheres through an intra‐arter...Figure 18.10 (a) ^99mTc‐MAA is used to simulate or “map” the future distribut...Figure 18.11 MAA particles and microspheres lodge in arterioles.Figure 18.12 Therapeutic radiolabeled monoclonal antibody.Figure 18.13 Therapeutic radiolabeled ligand.Figure 18.14 Components of the nephron.Figure 18.15 “Cold” amino acids competitively block the re‐absorption of the...Figure 18.16 Bremsstrahlung X‐rays resulting from the interaction of beta pa...

19 Chapter 19Figure 19.1 Alpha particles are stopped by layers of dead epidermis; high en...Figure 19.2 Alpha particles can damage the lining epithelium of the gastroin...Figure 19.3 Elastic scattering of proton following neutron interaction with ...Figure 19.4 Exposure and contamination.Figure 19.5 Frisking (pancake) probe for attachment to survey meter.Figure 19.6 Detector proximity is necessary for alpha detection.Figure 19.7 Paper and plastic or aluminum can be placed between the radioact...