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TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS, AND CHRONOLOGY

Measurements

Fabrics were measured in pi (bolts), zhang (lengths or yards), chi (feet), and cun (inches):

1 pi = 4 zhang (11.11 m)

1 zhang = 10 chi (3.3 m)

1 chi = 10 cun (0.33 m)

1 cun = 3.55 cm

Shi (stone) is a unit of measurement equal to 10 dou (100 liters).

Currency

Qing China had a bimetallic currency of silver and copper:

Silver ingots (liang or tael, approximately 37.68 grams of silver) were used for large and wholesale transactions.

1 tael = 10 qian = 100 fen = 1,000 li

Copper coins or cash (qian wen) came in strings of 1,000 coins (chuan, diao) and were used for small retail transactions.

1 silver tael = 1,000 copper wen (official exchange rate; actual market rate fluctuated from 1:800 to 1:2000 throughout the Qing).

During the nineteenth century, foreign silver dollars (yang yuan) also circulated.

The Chinese yuan was introduced in 1889, when it was equivalent to 0.72 tael.

Museum Abbreviations

AIC	Art Institute of Chicago
CMA	Cleveland Museum of Art
DAM	Denver Art Museum
Met	Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
MFA	Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
MIA	Minneapolis Institute of Art
PEM	Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts
PMA	Philadelphia Museum of Art
RISD	Rhode Island School of Design, Providence
ROM	Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto
V&A	Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Qing Dynasty Reign Periods

Shunzhi (1643–1661)

Kangxi (1661–1722)

Yongzheng (1723–1735)

Qianlong (1736–1795)

Jiaqing (1796–1820)

Daoguang (1820–1850)

Xianfeng (1850–1861)

Tongzhi (1861–1875)

Guangxu (1875–1908)

Xuantong (1908–1911)