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ОглавлениеOver many years, we have known people who had enrolled in an engineering curriculum, only to decide it was not what they really wanted to do. Also some switched their engineering major when they decided there were different conditions they preferred to work in. For instance, one student decided he would prefer to work outside in the field, not in a laboratory or office, so switched from chemical to petroleum engineering. Such changes, while not uncommon, may be costly for students, both in time and money. Depending on when the change is made, completing the degree may be pushed beyond the traditional four years by two or more years, with college costs increasing proportionally.
We find it interesting to talk to young people, high school seniors, and college freshmen, and discuss with them the course of study they plan to follow in college and for their career. Frequently, an individual will simply say, “I’m going into Engineering.” That is somewhat akin to saying trees are green — there is such a variation in what an engineer is, what courses need to be studied, what the interests of the student are, what jobs are available to the graduate, and the list goes on and on. If the individual can narrow the choice, even slightly, to say, “I’m going to be an electrical engineer.” there still remains a large number of choices to be made as one embarks on the studies needed for the new career.
During our years of work as engineers, we have seen many engineering graduates who have specialized so narrowly that they were unable to adapt for success in some very challenging opportunities. One case in point was a young engineer trained in electronics, but unable to handle testing of printers. Why? The testing involved primarily mechanical components, although much of the printer itself contained electronics for paper advance, hammer firing, data transfer, and so forth, but he couldn’t adapt to the system aspects of the job. After a time he left and found a new position in aircraft cockpit simulators, although we suspect he didn’t last there either, as there are many, if not more, mechanical aspects to learn.
A second case was a bright young engineer carrying a 4.0 G.P.A., and appeared to have a brilliant future as a design engineer— until he was asked to perform a simple modification of a printed circuit card. In all of his training, he had never soldered on a circuit board — and had no interest in learning. He moved on, looking for opportunities in research and development where he hoped to apply the theory he had learned. In his case, we wished him luck, but doubted his future success simply because of his attitude toward the mundane aspects of the work. He hadn’t come to the realization that every project is not going to be involved in startling new discoveries; there will be those times when the work is very ordinary. Other young engineers, who relatively had only “adequate” training, understood this and thus were often successful in design and testing of a wide variety of business machines and systems. Some then expanded their career opportunities by also becoming adept at programming for testing and manufacturing process control.
On the other hand, there are those who want to do research in highly specialized or specific areas. In that case, specialization may be appropriate, as long as the individual recognizes the possible limitations placed on their career path by such narrow focus. The authors, however, write from years of broad-based experience in the testing of a wide variety of business machines, robots, automated manufacturing systems, human factors assessments, and various systems, ranging from office systems to others for airports, parking lots, trucking centers, and highway applications. In such cases, the engineer must be able to understand the system aspects of the application, installation, and, if required, provide operating instructions that non-technical operators can understand and follow quickly and correctly. Yes, the engineer must also develop good communication and writing skills along the way, and certainly the ability to work with others in a cooperative and courteous manner.
One author, Richard Spencer, who had several years as a combat cameraman and worked in a hand-cast aluminum cookingware factory, decided to acquire an Electrical Engineering degree. He was offered positions at a television company, the U.S. Geodetic Survey Service, missile research, and IBM. He settled on IBM and had a very satisfying 38-year career there, spending the most time within the Product Test function. In that role, he was charged with the testing of new products prior to public announcement or shipment, and tested everything from input/output equipment to mainframes — both mechanical and electrical. While at college, he gave special attention to mechanical areas of study and to technical writing for communicating effectively with non-engineers. Later at IBM, he had many technical reports to write, coached other engineers and programmers in writing for understandability by non-engineer product users, had two books on product testing published, and was assigned to rewrite a management manual.
Raymond Floyd also had an Electrical Engineering degree and worked in radar, field engineering, and programming prior to joining IBM. Given his broad-based experience, he was tasked with obtaining approval from NASA for funding and then designing, integrating, and testing procedures for diagnostic programs for support computers at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. During his IBM career, he worked in missile support, Product Test, automated manufacturing systems design, and radio frequency identification (RFID) systems. The authors spent 26 years working together at IBM, often on the same projects involving work not only in the laboratory, but also in the field, both in the United States and abroad, even involving the testing of an anti-collision system aboard ships for the shipping industry.
In other words, it is well for many young engineers to approach their training with an open mind about what they will learn and decide if specialization is meant for them. If it’s not, they need to be able to adapt to a wide variety of opportunities over a range of engineering capabilities. Such an approach may lead them to find that there are many more opportunities to take advantage of as they progress in their careers. In addition, with a broad outlook, the young engineers may find more opportunities to move into and become successful managing a broad range of engineering projects and engineering personnel. Excessive specialization can restrict the young engineer’s opportunities, and perhaps they should try for a broader approach as the means to the greatest opportunity.
Although it would take a larger book to discuss all of the variations of engineering studies, within this text, we will provide insight into the types of studies required for general engineering, and some specifics for a few more clearly defined engineering occupations. It is also important to note that engineering studies in the United States may be significantly different when considering the curriculum in other nations.
To begin, the student who wants to be an engineer should have a high interest in science and mathematics. High school courses should have included basic math, algebra, trigonometry, and geometry. In addition, classes in chemistry and physics are essential. In general, a college curriculum in engineering will require the student to include such courses as college algebra, trigonometry, calculus (integral and differential), physics, and strength of materials, with most of these classes coming during the first two years. More specific specialization will more often come in the final two years of study. Once the other science, humanities, and communication courses that are required for accreditation are included, the list of required courses is shown to be quite extensive.
The Engineering Technology Accreditation Committee (ETAC) and the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) have very specific requirements for accreditation of school programs, both in technical content and humanities content. In general, one-third of the total required hours must be in the technical specialization, but no more than two-thirds, with the remaining hours reserved for the science, humanities, and communication course requirements. ETAC and ABET provide accreditation reviews for school programs in engineering and engineering technology, both in the United States and other countries; they are the most prominent bodies in the United States.
At many schools you have the option to take either an engineering degree program or an engineering technology degree program. In most cases, the engineering degree will have greater emphasis on mathematics and design courses whereas the engineering technology will have greater emphasis on labs and general technical studies. Although both degrees are in engineering, the first would be more inclined to work in design or research whereas the latter would more often focus on field support, manufacturing, and product testing. As noted earlier, the list of “engineering degrees” is quite large, ranging from microbiology, to computers, to mechanical, civil, electrical, aeronautical, ... and so on. A partial list of degree programs that are reviewed for accreditation by ABET are listed in Appendix I.
In the following pages, some of the more typical engineering career fields will be examined, and some of the choices offered will be discussed. Regardless of the technical path, the ability to write and speak clearly and understandably by various levels of others is essential. It is interesting to note that the fundamental degree obtained may not map directly into the career path taken. Figure 2.1 illustrates a typical engineering program where fundamental building blocks are offered in the first two years and are, in general, common across engineering degrees. Once the fundamental building blocks are in place, students will begin to specialize in the programs specific to the degree chosen and their interests. It is also interesting to note that after graduation the mechanical engineer may find career opportunities in development, manufacturing, construction, or any number of fields. The same holds true for many engineering programs of study.
When one hears that someone is an electrical engineer, the first thought may be that the person is involved in computer design, i.e., a digital design engineer. Just as easily, the thought may encompass the work of a power engineer, or radio frequency engineer, and the list goes on across many different fields — all associated with electrical engineering. These areas just scratch the surface of what an electrical engineer may be trained to do. Although the computer industry does use a large number of electrical engineers, not all are involved in digital design. Many will be involved in power supply design, analog equipment design, and peripheral equipment design (such as disks, memories, tape units, and printers). Some may also be found in the design of wide area network equipment, converters, modems, and other associated equipment.
Beyond the computer industry, electrical engineers may be found in the communications industry, designing and testing line amplifiers, transmitters, receivers, modems, and wide area network components. (Note the crossover in engineering applications from the computer industry into communications.) In addition, communication industry electrical engineers may specialize in radio frequency technology such as antenna design, radio and radar applications, or even satellite communications.
Another area that employs many electrical engineers is the power industry. Here, the emphasis is on the generation and distribution of electrical power— power used by industry and the private sectors. In this case, the engineers are trained in AC power generation and distribution, and frequently have more training in the design and use of electric motors and generators. One industry that uses motor designers is the petroleum industry, where motors are designed as submersible units to provide the power needed to lift the crude oil from the well to the surface. Of course, submersible motors are not the only motors used in the petroleum industry, nor are they the only application found in motors across many industries. As part of the power industry sector, the engineer may also have additional training in the development of solar cell technology and wind turbines.
The electrical engineer may also pick up programming experience along the way, experience used to support the mechanical engineer in the design of automated manufacturing tools. The programming may be on devices used to control machine automation, like a programmable logic controller (PLC), where the programming language may be a special application language like LabView® for control of the device, or it may be assembler language, BASIC, or C++ in the event a PC is used as the controlling device.
Controls Engineers, sometimes called Control Systems Engineers, are most frequently concerned with the cause and effect of a system. The system most frequently uses sensors coupled with feedback to cause changes in the system operation. The system can range from something as simple as the cruise control on an automobile, to a complex algorithm used to control automated manufacturing processes, or the operation of a robot articulator movement. In many cases, the Controls Engineer may combine studies from Electrical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Engineering to understand the component interactions, the feedback mechanisms, and the programs needed to implement the controls.
Mechanical engineering is as diverse as electrical engineering and may be concerned with structural engineering, i.e., buildings, bridges, roads, where the concern is in loading and structural integrity. The relevant courses will be strength of materials and physics of forces acting on structures.
Mechanical engineers are also heavily involved in the petroleum industry, designing the pumps that provide the lift needed to bring the crude oil from the well to the surface. Not only do the pumps have to provide lift, the materials and surface treatments must be selected by the engineer to survive in a very hostile environment — heat, pressure, and corrosive liquids. For that, the mechanical engineer must be trained in the reaction of metals to corrosive liquids, a crossover into the chemical industry.
Factory automation depends heavily on the mechanical engineer, where the machines to build components, sub-assemblies, and final assembly are typically designed by the mechanical engineer (with help from the electrical engineer and programmer). The relevant classes typically found in the mechanical engineering curriculum will be computer-aided drawing, or CAD, offered in either two dimensional programs or the newer three dimensional modeling techniques such as SolidWorks®.
The power industry also relies heavily on the mechanical engineer, where transmission line towers must be designed to support the power lines in all types of weather and other adverse conditions, such as icing, high winds, and large temperature ranges. In addition, physical structures such as dams, spillways, and generator housings are all within the purview of the mechanical and civil engineer.
Besides mathematics and physics, chemical engineers should also do well at both organic and inorganic chemistry. If they do best in organic chemistry, typical jobs will be found in the oil industry as a petroleum engineer, applications engineer, corrosive engineer, and similar job titles. They may also find themselves employed within the chemical industry, involved in the development and manufacture of such products as rubber, tires, carbon black, and fuel oils and gases.
If the student’s interests lean more to inorganic chemistry, the job opportunities can include employment in the chemical industry involved in the development of new materials, additives, and exotic chemical mixtures, for example, soaps, cleaning materials and other similar products. The inorganic chemical engineer may also find interesting work in the development of new metal mixtures, where the new mix may provide longer product life in corrosive environments, have higher temperature characteristics, or increase malleability under certain stress conditions. Many new materials that have been used in the space program are the result of chemical engineering discoveries.
Petroleum Engineers are primarily concerned with the recovery of crude oil and natural gases from under the earth’s surface. They will normally study a cross-section of mechanical engineering, geology, and chemistry. Their knowledge of earth structures is critical in the search for new oil deposits, the means of gathering oil and gas, the effectiveness of the recovery process to maximize the return on investment, and the expected life of a particular field. They may be heavily involved in the design of the down-hole equipment used to bring the crude oil to the surface, the transfer from the wellhead to the processing factory, and even the well drilling process itself. They will also have to have training in sub-surface environments, including sub-sea drilling and transfer.
The manufacturing engineer, sometimes called an industrial engineer, is primarily concerned with the movement of products through the manufacturing floor from raw parts to finished product. The concerns cover the movement of parts from inventory to the proper point on the manufacturing floor, to the generation of operator assembly procedures, to the proper functioning of manufacturing tools, and to the routing of the product as it progresses through the entire manufacturing process (product routing). Specific tools needed by the operator will also be identified and/or designed by the manufacturing engineer. In the process of designing new manufacturing tools or fixtures, the manufacturing engineer will call upon many of the same skills found in a mechanical engineer. Such studies as strength of materials, computer-aided drawing (CAD), fixtures, and precision measurements, are all needed in both fields. Assembly procedures will be studied and time-in-motion studies carried out to ensure the procedures embody the most efficient manner of assembly possible. To quote the old adage, “Time is money”. Human factors, safety, and quality control are all facets of the career of a Manufacturing Engineer.
The field of computer engineering is another one of those careers that may follow one of two very divergent paths. The first path is the design of new computer systems, where the design is more involved with new application specific integrated circuits (ASIC), new methods of using multiple processors for increased throughput, ever decreasing circuit spacing within the chip designs, and similar activities aimed at new computer designs. The second path is more along the lines of designing new operating systems that provide real-time process support, multi-processor support, and new applications for the average user.
In the first path, the program will more than likely be referred to as computer engineering, whereas the second path may be called computer science. The first path will be more oriented to digital and analog circuit design, with courses and labs designed to support the needs for circuit awareness. The second path will be more involved with the programming of computer systems, from basic assembler, to compilers, to the operating systems needed to support new computers in the most efficient manner possible. In some cases, the two paths may be offered in different departments within the university.
Now some might say, you almost always field-test products. Yes, very true, often where the field can be a fabric mill, a car rental counter, a hotel lobby, or a deep-water oil rig. Of course, testing is not limited to the field, but may also be undertaken in a test facility within the plant. In the latter case, there will often be specialized equipment not easily transported to the field. For example, in classical tests the equipment — such as temperature-humidity-altitude chambers, anechoic chambers, acoustic chambers, and radio field measurement chambers — are all large physical units not generally portable. The point is that engineering, whatever field chosen, will probably require effort in many different environments, and involvecertain sub-specialties within a given engineering field, be it civil, electrical, mechanical, or some other. One problem with test engineering is that few universities offer such a specialized degree. Test engineers generally develop through assignments in Product Test, or a similar department, where a team performs testing on a new product that includes mechanical tests, electrical tests, and software tests. In many instances, usability testing may be included to ensure the product is useable by the intended user group.
Some universities offer a degree in Quality Engineering. More often, students who have an interest in becoming a Quality Engineer will study a number of general engineering courses, winding up with a degree in Electrical, Mechanical, or Manufacturing Engineering. For the engineering student interested in becoming a Quality Engineer, courses in statistics, simulation, and quantitative management will provide some of the tools that will be needed.
What then does the new graduate expect to do as a Quality Engineer? To begin with, the Quality Engineer will function as part of the Development Team, consisting of Development, Quality, Product Test, Manufacturing, and Marketing members. In this role, the Quality Engineer will be involved with new product development, early manufacturing verification, first article inspection (new parts from vendors), part failure root cause analysis, field tests, and final product manufacturing release. Other areas that require Quality Engineering support are vendor qualification, operator process procedure evaluation and qualification, standards adherence, and product sampling for correct operation. The Quality Engineer touches many aspects of a product from its inception to final delivery. Quality Engineers may find opportunities in either Quality Assurance or Quality Control.
The Civil Engineer may well be the one who we see in action most frequently, and whose work we benefit from daily. They are responsible for roads, community and city planning, railroads, as well as many other project aspects available for our daily use. The Roman engineers who were responsible for the road and city layouts were the forerunners of today’s civil engineers. Civil Engineers are the largest single engineering group of all Professional Engineers (with Surveying Engineers second). This certification is required by most states as a protection for the safety and reliability of public-use structures such as buildings, towers, bridges, and roadways. Relevant courses include dynamics, statics, strength of materials, architecture design, and structural strength, which provide the underlying theory needed to ensure the structures being used are safe.
The Surveying Engineer is the second largest contingent within the ranks of Professional Engineers. Setting property lines, city limits, and similar activities can involve vast sums of money. States therefore wish to ensure that the work done is done correctly and professionally, and require the surveyors to take a battery of qualification tests as well as frequently requiring an apprenticeship.
Although there is no formal degree program that the authors are aware of with the title of Sales Engineering, there are many opportunities for engineers to enter the Marketing and/or Sales organizations based on their technical training. In particular, if the engineer enjoys working and interfacing with the public, the chances of success are high. Engineers in this particular career path can be successful because of their technical knowledge and their ability to transfer that knowledge to the customer. Most customers are grateful for a salesperson’s ability to break down the technical jargon to something more understandable and much less technical in nature. In many corporations, it is the Sales Engineer who often rises rapidly within the company hierarchy.
When asked about human factors work, most people will think first of the field in its infancy, where time-in-motion studies were the primary emphasis for those calling themselves Human Factors Engineers. Like the Quality Engineer, there are few schools that provide undergraduate programs in Human Factors Engineering. More often, degrees in Human Factors Engineering are found at the graduate and doctoral levels, where specialization is more common. In the undergraduate programs, courses in statistics, CAD, psychology, systems engineering, and communications will help the new engineer understand the needs of the Human Factors Engineer.
Beyond time-in-motion studies, what activities can be found in the realm of the Human Factors Engineer? To begin with, the Human Factors Engineer will be concerned with the physical aspects of equipment. Questions as to table heights versus operator height, control placement versus operator reach, control recognition (color, shape, size, function), color recognition (size, color, shape), and similar physical aspects of the products and machines all fall under the purview of the Human Factors Engineer. Another principle area that came into vogue in the mid-1980s is in operator usability testing. In usability testing, a number of test subjects are organized with a defined educational level, physical characteristics, and other properties representative of the intended final users of the product. The subjects perform a set of tasks, and the completion evaluated to determine whether a product is usable within the defined user population.
The Reliability Engineer is primarily responsible for identifying and managing asset reliability risk. In particular, the Reliability Engineer will review production losses and equipment maintenance costs, and attempt to reduce both for an increased return-on-investment. In the process, the Reliability Engineer will perform root cause analysis on failures, looking at possible hazards, failure modes, equipment maintainability, and, in short, life cycle management of equipment and processes. The Reliability Engineer would be expected to have classes in materials, chemistry, statistics, test methods, and associated labs (to better understand testing and equipment usage).
In an ideal role, the Safety Engineer will be part of the design team, with primary emphasis on the safety of equipment operations and maintenance (especially where human operators are part of the process.) Unfortunately, most often the Safety Engineer will be brought in to review safety issues only after the process and/or product has been placed in operation. In many cases, the Safety Engineer will be reviewing personnel injuries, trying to determine the underlying cause(s). In this latter application, the additional safety requirements for personnel and equipment can drive the cost of production excessively high due to the inherent nature of “fixing” problems in production level equipment. The Safety Engineer will also be required to understand and implement rules mandated by state and federal agencies such as NIOSH, OSHA, and others charged with production personnel safety.
The Systems Engineer is frequently thought of as the jack-of-all-trades. Most are involved with both work processes and equipment operation. Much of the work involves engineering design considerations, but, at the same time, must deal with the human aspects of machines. In short, the Systems Engineer is both an engineer and a project manager. In the latter role, the Systems Engineer must be involved with vendor selection, process/machine interactions, personnel training requirements, equipment staging, material flows, and the list goes on. From systems design, development, installation, to operation, the Systems Engineer has primary responsibility to ensure the whole system works smoothly and as predicted. The role of the Systems Engineer and the Manufacturing Engineer can overlap to a large amount. The Systems Engineer may have a greater role in vendor selection and project management, but the difference is slight. More schools will have a degree program in Manufacturing Engineering than in Systems Engineering.
Originally, the term Industrial Engineer was applied to those individuals within the manufacturing area responsible for the management of equipment, processes, and the people on the manufacturing floor. The term is now more related to the analysis of processes, systems, and organizational structure, and how the interaction of the three operates most effectively. The Industrial Engineer will have a program study similar to that of the Manufacturing Engineer and the Systems Engineer.
As one might expect, the role of the Aerospace Engineer is concerned with the design, research, development, and testing of airborne systems. The field may be broken into two realms, with the differentiation being whether the system is atmospheric (aeronautics) or exoatmospheric (astronautics). Airframes, wing foils, propulsion, cabin pressure, atmospheric conditioning, and similar elements are all part of the Aerospace Engineer’s work. The U.S. space program from the early unmanned spacecraft to Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and the Space Shuttle were all prime career opportunities for the Aerospace Engineer. Other programs such as satellite communications, interplanetary probes, and other space vehicles are also an active part of the space program, all opportunities for the Aerospace Engineer.
The Biomedical Engineer is a relatively new field for engineers. Many of the developments now being made were developed through teams of doctors, electrical engineers, materials engineers, and mechanical engineers earlier. The Biomedical Engineer must have a good understanding of human physiology and how the body reacts to the intrusion of foreign materials. New instruments are being developed by the Biomed Engineer, with such tools as MRI and Catscan being two examples. The field may have more than one development path, ranging from the design of new equipment to the development of new drugs to treat illnesses.
The Materials Engineer is somewhat a cross between a physicist, chemist, and mechanical engineer. In many instances, the Materials Engineer plays the role of the Reliability Engineer in researching and finding root causes of failures in a product. Obviously, the Materials Engineer will have to spend a large portion of their studies dedicated to material properties, with the understanding of the chemical makeup and reactions between certain materials and the elements in which they are used.
The field engineer may be an academically trained engineer or may be an experienced technician. In either case, the field engineer takes a different perspective to a new product. The field engineer is primarily interested in the Mean-Time-to-Repair (MTTR) aspects of the product. In looking at the system, the field engineer is interested in what type of diagnostics will be available? What special tools or test equipment will be needed? Are there adequate access panels for service? Are there any trouble shooting aids provided (which may take the form of flow charts, frequently asked questions, or trouble shooting guides)? Are the installation instructions and dismantle instructions clear and complete? What special training is needed and available? The field engineer needs to ensure that the product is maintainable and that the field team will be prepared for the product when it gets to the field.
From this discussion, it should be evident that the term “engineer” may encompass a variety of studies and career paths for the engineering student. The field of engineering is somewhat like an onion; it appears simple on the surface, but as you peel back the layers, there are more new layers to explore. There is a growing demand in industry for trained, skilled engineers. No matter what field of engineering, engineering support, or other technical field you may choose, you must be able to communicate your findings, suggestions, or results to others. In many cases, those individuals will be technical or scientific persons, and such communication may be easy. On the other hand, they will often be non-technical persons such as business-oriented management and sales people, product or service users, and people who are not technically trained. It is your responsibility to make yourself understood, whether in writing reports and proposals, or speaking at conferences. This is one aspect of scientific and engineering fields that both authors found absolutely essential in their work as engineers, instructors, and managers.
It is also extremely important to recognize the responsibilities assumed as engineers progress in their careers. Every so often you can hear an explanation similar to this when telling someone their result is wrong, “It looked okay to me. I got the figures from Joe and he does good work.” The response can be, “It’s your responsibility to know that what you turn in is right. Did you check the calculations to verify their correctness?” That sort of exchange is not very different from some the authors have heard in industry. Whatever you turn in on any project, paper or hardware, is your responsibility, not someone else’s. Another member of the team may have done the calculations, or piece of work, but in accepting it, you have accepted responsibility for its completeness, accuracy, and acceptability for the intended purpose. As you progress in industry, whether by promotion or leadership assignment, you rely on others to do many tasks, but you are still responsible for the overall result. In other words, as you progress, the extent and level of your responsibility for performance and results actually increases. It does not diminish!
One other aspect of engineering that must be expected is that over time the field will change as new materials, technologies, and applications are brought to the marketplace, regardless of the type of engineering. As a result, you will need to maintain your skill set through continuing education and training.
Find the particular subjects you best enjoy and pursue the necessary courses to fulfill your dream - and be an “Engineer”.
Suggested Problems
1. Write a 250-300 word paper on the topic “I want to be a___________ Engineer” and support your choice.
2. Given a particular engineering path to follow, research that choice and determine what options are available for a specific career path. What courses would you have to take to follow the chosen path?
3. There have been three tragic accidents in the U.S. space program. What are the three and what problems occurred to cause the accidents?
Other Readings
Criteria for Accrediting Programs. ABET, Inc. www.abet.org.
Barger, M., Richard, G., and Snyder, M. (2010). Manufacturing Career Pathways. Manufacturing Engineering, April 2010.
Spencer, R. and Floyd, R. (2010). So, You Are Going To Be An Engineer? IEEE Potentials, May/June 2010.
Wickens, C. D., et al. (2004). An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering. Pearson-Prentice Hall.
