Читать книгу Why do buildings collapse in earthquakes? Building for safety in seismic areas - Robin Spence - Страница 4

1 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Stone masonry building in the Kutch district damaged in the Bhuj ...Figure 2.2 Brick masonry building with reinforced concrete floors damaged in...Figure 2.3 Reinforced concrete building in the Kutch district and typical da...Figure 2.4 Damage to a reinforced concrete building in Bhuj, and view of the...Figure 2.5 High‐resolution satellite imagery of the centre of Bam taken (lef...Figure 2.6 Failure of adobe dwelling in the Bam earthquake.Figure 2.7 Damage caused by the 26 December 2004 tsunami at Unawatuna, Sri L...Figure 2.8 Damage caused by the 26 December 2004 tsunami at Unawatuna, Sri L...Figure 2.9 2005 Kashmir earthquake: damage in the Muzaffarabad district. Aer...Figure 2.10 2005 Kashmir earthquake: damage in the Muzaffarabad district. Da...Figure 2.11 Collapse of house of traditional construction, Yogyakarta earthq...Figure 2.12 Partially collapsed five‐storey masonry middle school building i...Figure 2.13 Typical damage to low‐rise informal building in Port au‐Prince....Figure 2.14 Typical damage to pre‐1930s masonry buildings in Christchurch.Figure 2.15 Typical damage in tsunami‐affected region. Timber frame building...Figure 2.16 Typical damage in tsunami‐affected region. Steel frame building ...Figure 2.17 Typical damage to masonry construction in urban areas of Nepal....Figure 2.18 Typical damage to masonry construction in urban areas of Nepal....Figure 2.19 Earthquake damage and fatalities by country 2000–2019, using a l...Figure 2.20 Global earthquake mortality rate since 1900 (deaths per 100 000 ...

2 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Köppen–Geiger climate classification: boundaries of the major cli...Figure 3.2 Timber‐framed house with lightweight walls and roof in warm humid...Figure 3.3 Village housing in the hot‐dry area of Iran. Open courtyards, clo...Figure 3.4 Estimated seismic resistance index for buildings designed with ap...Figure 3.5 The GEM global seismic hazard map with the 10 zones identified in...Figure 3.6 Distribution of urban residential building types by 10 seismic re...Figure 3.7 Reinforced concrete dual frame and shear‐wall apartment building ...Figure 3.8 Stone masonry urban houses in Italy.Figure 3.9 Rural adobe house in Iran.Figure 3.10 Reinforced concrete frame apartment building in Turkey.Figure 3.11 Dhajji Dewari building in Srinagar, Kashmir.Figure 3.12 Qionglong building in Sichuan Province.Figure 3.13 Damaged reinforced concrete frame building in Dujianyang after 2...Figure 3.14 Ordinary urban wooden housing in Japan 1970s and 1980s.Figure 3.15 Typical form of traditional shinkabe timber frame house used in ...Figure 3.16 Confined masonry house in Bengkulu, Indonesia, 2007.Figure 3.17 Traditional masonry house in Yogjakarta, Indonesia, 2006.Figure 3.18 Typical New Zealand wood‐frame house.Figure 3.19 Soft‐storey damage to older wood‐frame house in 2011 Christchurc...Figure 3.20 Confined masonry apartment buildings in Chile.Figure 3.21 Concrete shear wall apartment building in Chile.Figure 3.22 Distribution of housing by construction type in Zone 8 countries...Figure 3.23 Reinforced concrete frame construction in Mexico.Figure 3.24 Confined masonry housing in Guatemala 2019.Figure 3.25 Bahareque reconstruction after the 1986 earthquake in El Salvado...Figure 3.26 Typical wood‐frame single‐family housing in California.Figure 3.27 Wall framing system used in wood‐frame housing construction in C...

3 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Diagrams showing different types of earthquakes.Figure 4.2 Þingvellir National Park in Iceland, where the Eurasian and North...Figure 4.3 The San Andreas fault in California, USA.Figure 4.4 An irrigation tunnel (qanat) has been dug through alluvium toward...Figure 4.5 Diagrams showing (TOP) relative peak bedrock ground accelerations...Figure 4.6 Figure showing the natural periods of structures of different hei...Figure 4.7 This diagram shows the most damaged types of buildings in the 198...Figure 4.8 Clean‐up operations of damage caused by liquefaction in Christchu...Figure 4.9 Disaggregation of shaking and secondary effects economic costs fr...Figure 4.10 The massive landslide that severely damaged the highway and coll...Figure 4.11 View of the landslides in the affected area caused by the Mw6.6 ...Figure 4.12 Landslide in the town of Beichuan after the Mw7.9 Wenchuan earth...Figure 4.13 Image showing the quake lakes that formed along the Mianyuan Riv...Figure 4.14 Map showing the areas at risk from tsunamis around the world....Figure 4.15 Fire following the Mw6.9 Kobe earthquake in 1995 in Japan.

4 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 Traditional adobe construction in Iran.Figure 5.2 Stone masonry construction with roofs of stone tiles, India, Cham...Figure 5.3 Progressive damage states for random rubble stone masonry buildin...Figure 5.4 Impulse Table testing of stone masonry houses in Eastern Turkey: ...Figure 5.5 Traditional unreinforced brick masonry.Figure 5.6 Progressive damage in unreinforced masonry construction; top left...Figure 5.7 Wall collapse in masonry building with timber upper floor and roo...Figure 5.8 Confined masonry construction, showing typical locations of confi...Figure 5.9 Confined masonry construction in Chile: detail of wall‐column int...Figure 5.10 Reinforced masonry construction. Typical reinforcing details.Figure 5.11 Reinforced masonry using concrete block masonry in Canada.Figure 5.12 Reinforced masonry construction for urban housing in Colombia, 2...Figure 5.13 Forms of reinforced construction. From left: concrete frame, inf...Figure 5.14 Soft‐storey collapse of reinforced concrete building, Kocaeli ea...Figure 5.15 Collapse of reinforced concrete shear wall structure, Conception...Figure 5.16 Modern Dhajji Dewari construction.Figure 5.17 Timber stud‐wall construction – general form and detail of corne...Figure 5.18 Typical forms of damage to timber stud‐wall structures. From top...Figure 5.19 Damaged timber‐framed building in Christchurch, New Zealand, in ...Figure 5.20 Damaged recently built timber‐frame building in Mashiki Town, in...Figure 5.21 Forms of steel frame construction. From left: moment frame, brac...Figure 5.22 Collapsed 21‐storey steel‐frame Pino Suarez building, Mexico Cit...Figure 5.23 Latino American Tower, Mexico City, in 2015. This landmark steel...Figure 5.24 Details of failed connections in steel‐framed buildings, 1995 Ko...Figure 5.25 Mean probability of a building of weak masonry exceeding each of...Figure 5.26 Vulnerability for building classes A–F, showing expected composi...Figure 5.27 Most likely vulnerability range (solid lines) and possible vulne...

5 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Chart showing the causes of deaths from the casualty database. Bu...Figure 6.2 Flow‐chart showing the different causal factors to consider when ...Figure 6.3 GHI's evidence‐based guidance describes the process to use and th...Figure 6.4 Figure showing collapsed buildings in Balakot, Kashmir, after the...Figure 6.5 Sketches showing the movement of residents and their furniture im...Figure 6.6 Postulated changes in survival rate of occupants in different col...Figure 6.7 Flowchart showing the Cambridge casualty estimation model in coll...Figure 6.8 Catastrophic collapse of the five‐storey Pyne Gould Corporation (...Figure 6.9 Summary of the information provided by PAGER in its fifth release...Figure 6.10 Basic paradigm of linear regression models for earthquake loss a...Figure 6.11 Engineering‐based earthquake loss estimation approach.Figure 6.12 Flow diagram showing a multi‐severity casualty model framework p...Figure 6.13 Collapsed buildings where a few may have managed to escape or ge...Figure 6.14 Photograph showing the nine collapsed buildings of the WJ Comple...Figure 6.15 Diagram showing the physical locations of patients registered in...Figure 6.16 Sketches showing the differences in indoor volumetric reduction ...Figure 6.17 Casualty ratios for different collapse patterns of typical Japan...Figure 6.18 Sketches of different collapse mechanisms of a midrise reinforce...Figure 6.19 Relationship between fatality rates and IVR.Figure 6.20 Examples of photographs used for IVR analysis.Figure 6.21 Examples of photographs analysed for the peril of falling debris...

6 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Retrofitted elementary school in Istanbul under ISMEP programme....Figure 7.2 School building in Nepal, before and after strengthening, 1998....Figure 7.3 Use of modified mould for rammed earth construction in Ecuador, 1...Figure 7.4 ‘Alien technology’ in reconstruction. Reconstructed houses in Ace...Figure 7.5 Graduate of the NSET mason training programme applies lessons lea...Figure 7.6 Artisan skill up‐gradation programme in Gujarat, India, 2019.Figure 7.7 Drop, Cover and Hold On graphic from the Great California Shakeou...Figure 7.8 Extract from Tokyo Metropolitan Government Manual on Earthquake P...Figure 7.9 Shock‐table demonstration to convince people of the effectiveness...

7 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Soft storey timber apartment block in San Francisco, retrofitted ...Figure 8.2 Reduction in death rate (proportion of population killed in the z...Figure 8.3 Damaged reinforced concrete building in Christchurch after 2011 e...Figure 8.4 Reinforced concrete building on pilotis (Athens, Greece). This fo...Figure 8.5 CASE post‐earthquake housing system used in L'Aquila earthquake....Figure 8.6 Pre‐1977 reinforced concrete apartment block in Bucharest, showin...Figure 8.7 Strengthened school building, the İhsan Hayriye Hürdoğan Elementa...Figure 8.8 Damage to low‐rise masonry building in Newcastle, 1989 – still a ...Figure 8.9 Partially collapsed five‐storey restrained masonry building in th...Figure 8.10 Strengthened University building in Bogota, Colombia.Figure 8.11 Techniques for strengthening non‐engineered buildings in Indones...Figure 8.12 Partially collapsed building in Ahmedabad, 230 km from epicentre...Figure 8.13 Country comparison of estimated proportion of unsafe structures,...

8 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 Diagram showing the seven targets of the Sendai Framework for Dis...Figure 9.2 Visual showing the contributions by GEM's OpenQuake program.Figure 9.3 Cover page of the Homecoming cartoon, produced as part of a joint...Figure 9.4 The Japanese earthquake intensity scale depicted as a series of c...Figure 9.5 A furoshiki containing useful tips and information on disaster ri...Figure 9.6 Photographs taken of the live demonstrations of the earthquake de...Figure 9.7 Pablo Suarez explaining ‘Risk and Time: A Data Sculpture on Natur...