Оглавление
Robin Wilding. Applied Oral Physiology
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Author
1 The Origins of Teeth
1.1 Evolution
1.2 The Teeth as Tools. 1.2.1 Tooth Strength
1.2.2 Tooth Design
1.2.3 Tooth Wear in Man
Review Questions
Suggested Reading
2 Dental Hard Tissues
2.1 Enamel: Clinical Aspects. 2.1.1 Enamel Minerals
2.1.2 Enamel: Non-Minerals
2.1.3 Enamel Etching
2.1.4 Early Enamel Caries
2.1.5 Arrested Enamel Caries
2.2 Pulp–Dentin: Clinical Aspects
2.2.1 Physical Properties
2.2.2 Tubules
2.2.3 Permeability
2.2.4 Response to Irritation
2.2.5 Secondary Dentin
2.2.6 Dental Pulp Hyperemia
2.2.7 The Pulp Chamber and Root Canal
2.3 Response of the Pulp–Dentin to Caries
2.3.1 Bacterial Penetration
2.3.2 Secondary Caries
2.3.3 Conservative Management of Deep Caries
2.3.4 Arrested Caries in Dentin
2.3.5 Regeneration after Pulpal Exposure
2.3.6 The Origin of Replacement Odontoblasts
Review Questions
References
Suggested Readings
3 Oral Mucosa and Periodontium
3.1 Structure of Oral Mucosa
3.1.1 Oral Epithelium
3.1.2 Lamina Propria
3.2 Function of Oral Mucosa
3.2.1 Rates of Turnover of Oral Mucosa
3.3 Regional Variation of Oral Mucosa
3.3.1 Masticatory Mucosa
3.3.2 Lining Mucosa
3.3.3 Gustatory Mucosa
3.4 Alveolar Bone
3.5 The Periodontal Ligament
3.5.1 Periodontal Ligament Fibers
3.5.2 Response of the Periodontal Ligament to Loading
3.5.3 Cells of the Periodontal Ligament
3.5.4 Vascular Supply of the Periodontal Ligament
3.5.5 Functions of the Periodontal Ligament
3.6 Cementum
3.6.1 Functions of Cementum
3.6.2 Origins of Cementum
3.6.3 Changes in Cementum with Aging
3.6.4 Cementum Formation in Healing
3.7 Junctional Epithelium
3.7.1 Loss of Epithelial Attachment
3.7.2 Influence of Female Hormones
Review Questions
References
Suggested Readings
4 The Ecology of the Oral Cavity
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Oral Environment
4.2.1 Salivary Pellicle
4.2.2 How Saliva Defines the Oral Environment
4.2.3 Rate of Flow of Saliva
4.2.4 Gingival Crevicular Fluid
Review Questions
4.3 The Biofilms of the Oral Environment
4.3.1 Biofilms
4.3.2 Calculus
4.3.3 Growth of a Biofilm
4.3.4 Dental Plaque
4.3.5 Variations in Plaque
4.3.6 From Symbiont to Pathobiont
4.3.7 Cross-Infection Control
4.3.8 Single Organism or Consortium
4.3.9 Dental Caries
4.3.10 Periodontal Disease
Review Questions
4.4 Oral Ecology and Dental Caries
4.4.1 Diet and Control of Dental Caries
4.4.2 Risk Factors in Predicting Dental Caries
4.4.3 Dental Caries, Infection, or Dietary Disorder?
Review Questions
4.5 Nutrition and Oral Ecology
4.5.1 Oral Manifestation of Malnutrition
4.5.2 Trace Elements, Minerals, and Vitamins
4.6 The Influence of Fluorides on the Oral Ecosystem. 4.6.1 Distribution of Fluoride in Teeth
4.6.2 Fluoride Protection of Enamel
4.6.3 Administration of Fluoride
Review Questions
4.7 Mucosal Immunity and Oral Ecology. 4.7.1 General Barriers to Infection
4.7.2 Mucosal Immunity
4.7.3 Antigen Tolerance
4.7.4 A Caries Vaccine
Review Questions
References
Suggested Reading. The Oral Environment
The Biofilms of the Oral Environment
Oral Ecology and Dental Caries
The Influence of Fluorides on the Oral Ecosystem
Mucosal Immunity and Oral Ecology
5 Cell Differentiation in Embryology and Repair
5.1 Cell Interactions in Differentiation. 5.1.1 Cell Differentiation
5.1.2 Cell Differentiation during Embryology
5.1.3 Cell and Matrix Interactions in Tooth Development
Review Questions
5.2 Tooth Morphogenesis. 5.2.1 Generic Tooth Forms
5.2.2 Cusp Morphology
Review Questions
5.3 Cell Interactions in Repair and Regeneration. 5.3.1 Wound Healing
5.3.2 Healing of a Tooth Socket
5.3.3 Healing of a Pulp Exposure
5.3.4 Cytokines and Extracellular Matrix in Healing
5.3.5 Comparison between Repair and Embryology
5.3.6 Nutrition, Embryology, and Healing
Review Questions
References
Suggested Readings. Tooth Morphogenesis
Cell Interactions in Repair and Regeneration
6 The Extracellular Matrix
6.1 Glycosaminoglycans
6.1.1 Types of Glycosaminoglycans
6.1.2 Properties of Glycosaminoglycans
6.2 Glycoproteins
6.2.1 Bone Glycoproteins
6.2.2 Fibronectin
6.2.3 Laminin
6.2.4 Metalloproteins
6.2.5 Periostin
6.3 Fibrous Matrix Proteins. 6.3.1 Collagen
6.3.2 Elastin
6.3.3 Keratin
6.4 Matricellular Proteins
Review Questions
Suggested Readings
7 The Physiology of Bone
7.1 The Mineralization Process. 7.1.1 Composition of Biological Apatites
7.1.2 Solubility of Apatites
7.1.3 Production of Apatite Crystals
7.2 Mechanisms of Mineralization
7.2.1 Control of Mineralization by Organic Components
7.2.2 Control of Mineralization by Cells
Review Questions
7.3 Methods of Bone Formation. 7.3.1 Origins of Bone
7.3.2 Structure of Cartilage
7.3.3 Cartilage as a Skeletal Material
7.3.4 Intramembranous Bone Formation
7.3.5 Growth of Intramembranous Bone
7.3.6 Endochondral Bone Formation
7.3.7 Summary of Differences between Cartilage and Bone
7.4 Development of the Skull and Jaws. 7.4.1 Development of the Mandible
7.4.2 Development of the Temporomandibular Joint
7.4.3 Synchondrosis of the Cranial Base
Review Questions
7.5 General Features of Growth
7.5.1 Phases of Growth
7.5.2 Measuring Growth
7.5.3 Soft Tissue (Functional) Matrices
7.6 Growth of the Skull and Jaws. 7.6.1 Growth of the Cranium and Face
7.6.2 Growth of the Mandible
Review Questions
7.7 Bone Remodeling
7.7.1 Mechanical Loads and Bone Remodeling
7.7.2 Cellular Process of Bone Remodeling
7.7.3 Transformation of Stress to Bone Cells
7.7.4 Tooth Repositioning
7.7.5 Remodeling of the Tooth Socket
7.7.6 Tooth Displacement and Cell Rests of Malassez
7.7.7 Response of Alveolar Bone to Dentures
7.7.8 Response of Bone to Implants
7.7.9 Systemic Factors and Bone Turnover
Review Questions
References
Suggested Readings. Mechanisms of Mineralization
Development of the Skull and Jaws
Growth of the Skull and Jaws
Bone Remodeling
8 Eruption, Occlusion, and Wear
8.1 Eruption. 8.1.1 Phases of Eruption
8.1.2 Formation of the Epithelial Attachment
8.1.3 Eruptive Mechanisms
8.1.4 Tooth Position after Eruption
8.1.5 Incomplete Eruption
8.1.6 Deciduous Dentition
8.1.7 Differences between Deciduous and Permanent Teeth
8.1.8 Mixed Dentition
Review Questions
8.2 Occlusion
8.2.1 Stability of the Dentition
8.2.2 Arch Stability
8.2.3 Tooth Stability
8.2.4 The Distribution of Bite Forces on Teeth
8.2.5 Summary
8.2.6 Purpose of Cusps
8.2.7 Arch and Tooth Relationships
8.2.8 Curves of Occlusion
8.2.9 Tooth Contacts during Function
8.2.10 Anterior Tooth Contact. Canine Guidance
Incisal Guidance
8.2.11 Summary of Arch and Tooth Relationships
8.2.12 Class II Arch and Tooth Relationships
8.2.13 Occlusion and Wear
Review Questions
8.3 Tooth Wear. 8.3.1 Types of Tooth Wear
8.3.2 Consequences of Tooth Wear
8.3.3 Other Compensatory Mechanisms for Continued Eruption
Review Questions
References
Suggested Readings. Eruption
Tooth Wear
9 The Temporomandibular Joint
9.1 The Mechanics of the Temporomandibular Joint. 9.1.1 A Load-Bearing Joint
9.1.2 Variable Forces at the Teeth
9.1.3 Joint Stability
9.1.4 Joint Instability and Muscle Fatigue
9.2 The Structure of the Temporomandibular Joint
9.3 Movement at the Temporomandibular Joint. 9.3.1 Constraints of Jaw Movements
9.3.2 Disk Displacement
9.3.3 Condyle Position
Review Questions
9.4 Temporomandibular Dysfunction. 9.4.1 Diagnosis
9.4.2 General Description of Temporomandibular Dysfunction
9.4.3 Research Diagnostic Criteria
9.4.4 Axis I—Physical Factors (Signs) Group I: Muscle Disorders
Group II: Disk Displacements
Group III: Other Joint Disorders
9.4.5 Axis II—Psychosocial Factors (Symptoms)
9.4.6 Evidence-Based Etiology
9.4.7 Diagnostic Tests
9.4.8 Illness Behavior
9.4.9 Management of Temporomandibular Dysfunction
References
Suggested Readings. Movement at the Temporomandibular Joint
Temporomandibular Dysfunction
10 Oral Sensations and Functions
10.1 The Nature of Pain
10.1.1 Injury without Pain
10.1.2 Pain without Injury
10.1.3 Chronic Pain
10.1.4 Measuring Pain
10.2 Psychological Factors and Pain
10.2.1 Culture
10.2.2 Past Experience
10.2.3 The Meaning of Pain
10.2.4 Control over Pain
10.2.5 Suggestion and Placebo
10.2.6 Hypnosis
10.2.7 “Psychological” Pain
10.2.8 Pain at Death
10.3 Some Types of Clinical Pain
10.4 Pain Mechanisms
10.4.1 Pain Pathways
10.4.2 Nerve Synapses
10.4.3 Innervation of the Pulp–Dentin
10.4.4 Dentin Sensitivity
10.4.5 Pulp–Dentin Pain
10.4.6 Neurogenic Inflammation of the Pulp Tissue
10.4.7 Facial Pain of Muscular Origin
10.4.8 Trigger Points in Muscles
10.4.9 Referred Pain
10.4.10 Nerve Injury
10.4.11 The Gate Theory
10.4.12 Pain and Stress
10.5 Oral Pain Control
10.5.1 Controlling Sensations
10.5.2 Controlling Emotions
10.5.3 Chronic Pain Management
10.5.4 Pain Control Mechanisms
Review Questions
10.6 Taste. 10.6.1 General Features of Taste
10.6.2 Modalities and Distribution
10.6.3 Taste Buds
Review Questions
10.7 Oral Proprioception. 10.7.1 Skin and Mucosa
10.7.2 Periodontal Receptors
10.7.3 Altered Feedback
10.7.4 Temporomandibular Joint Receptors
Review Questions
10.8 Oral Reflexes. 10.8.1 Jaw Reflexes
Review Questions
10.9 Mastication. 10.9.1 Evolutionary Aspects
10.9.2 Suckling
10.9.3 Masticatory Efficiency and Digestion
10.9.4 Masticatory Forces
10.9.5 Functional Jaw Movements
10.9.6 Muscle Activity
Review Questions
10.10 Swallowing
10.10.1 The Oral Phase of Swallowing
10.10.2 The Pharyngeal Phase
10.10.3 The Esophageal Phase
10.10.4 Muscle Activity of Swallowing
10.10.5 Forces during Swallowing
Review Questions
10.11 Speech
10.11.1 Phonation and Articulation
10.11.2 Defects in Speech
Review Questions
References
Suggested Readings. Oral Pain Control
Oral Proprioception
Oral Reflexes
11 Aging
11.1 General Features of Aging
11.2 Age Changes in the Teeth
11.2.1 Abrasion and Attrition
11.2.2 Stains and Discoloration
11.2.3 Secondary and Sclerotic Dentin
11.2.4 Age Changes in the Dental Pulp
11.3 Age Changes in Tooth Support. 11.3.1 The Periodontal Ligament
11.3.2 Cementum
11.3.3 Alveolar Bone
11.3.4 Oral Mucosa
11.3.5 Changes in the Temporomandibular Joint
11.4 Age Changes in Saliva
11.5 Nutritional Changes in Aging
11.6 Forensic Features of Eruption and Wear
11.7 Emotional Changes in Aging
Review Questions
Reference
Suggested Readings
Appendix A. The Origins of Teeth
A.1 Mastication and Mammals. A.1.1 The Evolution of Mammalian Teeth
A.1.2 The Mammalian Work Ethic
A.1.3 A Voracious Appetite
A.1.4 A Robust Skeleton and Powerful Muscles
A.1.5 Mammalian Teeth
A.1.6 The Mammalian Tooth Socket
A.1.7 The Mammalian Jaw Joint
A.2 The Mechanics of Tooth Use
A.2.1 Piercing Food
A.2.2 Cutting Food
A.2.3 Shredding Food
A.2.4 Grinding Food
Suggested Reading
Appendix B. Dental Hard Tissues
B.1 Physical Properties of Enamel and Dentin
B.2 Enamel Proteins
B.3 Composites and Resistance to Fracture
Appendix C. Oral Mucosa and the Periodontium
C.1 Tooth Displacement
C.2 Tooth Mobility
Suggested Readings
Appendix D. The Ecology of the Oral Cavity
D.1 Saturated Solutions
D.2 Salivary Gland Secretion
D.3 Gaia Theory
D.4 Gene Regulation in Biofilms
D.5 Strategies for Controlling Biofilms
D.6 Gram Staining Bacteria
D.7 Microenvironments
D.8 The Vipeholm Study
D.9 Fluoride Availability, Toxicity, and Fluorosis. D.9.1 Availability of Fluoride
D.9.2 Toxicity of Fluoride
D.9.3 Fluorosis
Review Questions
Reference
Suggested Reading
Appendix E. Cell Interactions in Embryology and Repair
E.1 Epigenetic Modulation
E.2 Morphogenesis. E.2.1 Adhesion and Contact Inhibition
E.2.2 Apoptosis
E.2.3 Integrins
References
Appendix F. The Physiology of Bone
F.1 Stress and Trabecular Orientation
F.2 Remodeling to Achieve Optimal Stress
Suggested Readings
Appendix G. Oral Sensations and Functions
G.1 Peripheral Sensitization
G.2 Central Sensitization
G.3 Central Connections of Pain Impulses
Appendix H. Endnotes
H.1 Cracks, Composites, and Teeth
H.2 On Growth and Form
H.3 The Heritage of Fibrous Polymers
H.4 Anecdotal Evidence; a Poor Substitute for Science. H.4.1 Convictions and Reality
H.4.2 The Lessons of Bloodletting
H.4.3 Evidence-Based Knowledge
H.4.4 The Deficiencies of the Process of Induction
Suggested Readings. Cracks, Composites, and Teeth
On Growth and Form
The Heritage of Fibrous Polymers
Anecdotal Evidence; a Poor Substitute for Science
Glossary of Terms in Biology. A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
