Читать книгу Textiles of Southeast Asia - Robyn Maxwell - Страница 9

Chapter 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOUTHEAST ASIAN TEXTILE HISTORY

Throughout Asia textiles are one of the most powerful and exciting art forms, and in Southeast Asia in particular, the spiritual and ritual importance that textiles play in ceremonies of state and religion is reflected in their great mystery and splendour. Southeast Asian textiles are outstanding works of art, formed by a rich variety of techniques. The finest examples, often of elaborate and complex design, display superb levels of technical skill in weaving, dyeing, embroidery and appliqué. A diversity of materials includes bark, plant fibres, cotton, silk, beads, shells, gold and silver, and among a profusion of patterns and motifs we find human figures, abstract geometric shapes, ships, arabesques, calligraphy, flowers, recognizable animals and imaginary monsters.

The most common function for textiles is their use as articles of clothing. However, apart from their importance as everyday and ceremonial dress, textiles in Southeast Asia have numerous other functions including their use as religious hangings, royal insignia, theatrical backdrops, sacred talismans or secular currency, for they are intimately connected to systems of religion, political organization, marriage, social status and exchange. These functions in turn affect the size, shape, structure and decoration of the cloths.

1,2

Since decorative textiles are of great importance as elaborate festive garments, as symbols of prestige, and as items of wealth and religious significance, the making of such cloth often requires physical and spiritual precautions to protect the quality of dyeing and weaving, and the well-being of the artisan. Consequently, legends and rituals surround both the origins and the making of important fabrics.

The texture of the materials, the skill of the craftswoman, the richness of the colours, and the clarity and intricacy of the patterning and design are the usual criteria for assessing the beauty and merit of these textiles. However, as we shall see, some unpretentious striped or plain-dyed cloths have great ritual potency. Moreover, many designs and motifs convey important messages significant only to those familiar with the particular social and religious principles of the people who have produced them. It is only by seeing cloths in their cultural context that we can begin to understand their true value and meaning.

A Dou Donggo woman from mountain Sumbawa, Indonesia, immersing handspun cotton thread in a pot of locally grown indigo dye. The use of local vegetable dyes is still widespread in eastern Indonesia where many women weave cloth for family and ceremonial needs. Despite the apparent simplicity of the apparatus, textiles of great beauty and complexity are produced.

Still a typical scene in many parts of Southeast Asia, a woman on the verandah of the ancestral house weaves a handspun fabric on a simple backstrap tension loom. Drying in the sun on bamboo poles across the front of the house are freshly dyed cotton threads. This village is in the mountainous Ngada district of central Flores, Indonesia.

'Voorvechter van het eiland Sawoe (Champion from the island of Savu)' coloured lithograph by P. van Oort, published in a volume by CJ. Temminck, Verhandelingen over de Natuurlijke Geschiedenis der Nederlandsche Overzeesche Bezittingen, Leiden, J.G. La Lau, 1839-47, Plate 44

'Borneosche Krijgsman (Borneo Warrior)' coloured lithograph by C.W. Mieling after drawings by A. van Pers, published in his Nederlandsch Oost-lndische Typen, The Hague, Koninklijke Steendrukkerij, 1855

(detail) higi huri worapi man's wrap Savunese people, Savu, Indonesia handspun cotton, natural dyes warp ikat 226.0 x 111.0 cm Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden, 1-141

The value of old records of textiles varies considerably. An early written description is often totally inadequate to determine the visual appearance of a cloth or costume, and old drawings, lithographs and photographs add an important pictorial dimension. However, as these two nineteenth-century lithographs show, the information they convey can also become distorted. Van Oort captures accurately the fabric worn by the Savunese 'champion', easily recognizable as a higi huri worapi (a man's wrap for members of the Hubi Ae, the Greater Blossom moiety) similar to a very early nineteenth-century museum example from the original F. von Siebold collection of the Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde, Leiden. This is one of the earliest Indonesian textiles in any European public collection. However, the later adaptation of van Oort's work by van Pers, published in 1855, completely distorts the information by adding slight but significant variations to the colour and detail of the costume, and by attributing the ethnic origins of the person to Borneo. This lithograph is in sharp contrast to the wonderful impressions of nineteenth-century life in Java by van Pers which appear in the same volume.

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF SOUTHEAST ASIAN TEXTILES

3,4,5

This book aims to bring some order and meaning to the rich but apparently confusing field of Southeast Asian textiles. This problem has bedevilled researchers since the European colonial era. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, as part of the study of 'native' arts and crafts, a number of ethnologists began to record the textile arts of various parts of Southeast Asia. An extensive and valuable literature on Indonesian textiles, in particular, dates from this period, and includes many important works of Dutch scholarship written earlier this century. J.A. Loeber (1903; 1913; 1914; 1916; 1926) produced a number of studies on various aspects of Indonesian decorative arts, including several on or related to textiles. Between 1912 and 1927 J.E. jasper and M. Pirngadie produced a series of volumes which set out to describe in great detail the native crafts of the Dutch East Indies, including two volumes documenting textile types and techniques (1912b; 1916). At around the same time, G.P. Rouffaer and H.H. Juynboll completed an important and detailed study of Indonesian batik (1914). During the 1930s and 1940s, a trickle of articles on the subject appeared in both ethnological and popular journals. This study was considerably enriched by the work of the Swiss textile scholar Alfred Buhler who continued to make important contributions to the wider field of ethnographic textiles until his death in 1981.¹

Since the Second World War, the study of Indonesian textiles has expanded on various fronts. Apart from an important interpretative work drawing upon museum textile collections in the Netherlands Gager Gerlings, 1952), there has been a number of comprehensive studies of the textiles of specific ethnic groups. Among the first of these, most of which have been based in anthropology or art history, were M.J. Adams's monograph (1969) and numerous articles on Sumbanese textiles, and M.S. Gittinger's analysis of south Sumatran ship cloths (1972). An impressive number of exhibition catalogues have also appeared, the most notable being M.S. Gittinger's Splendid Symbols (1979c), which combines a valuable synthesis of the scholarship on the subject with many photographs of outstanding examples.

Despite the recent increase in important studies and journal articles, the textiles of many ethnic groups in Indonesia still remain substantially unrecorded, and the published material on the textile arts from elsewhere in Southeast Asia remains remarkably thin.² Moreover, Indonesian textiles have been studied largely in isolation from the material cultures of neighbouring countries,³ despite the fact that many historians, linguists and other social scientists have long since recognized the benefits of regarding the whole of Southeast. Asia as a coherent and integrated field of study.⁴ This study, however, addresses the wider region of Southeast Asia. The boundaries of Southeast Asian countries have been largely determined by political forces operating over relatively recent times. Such political units conform only roughly to ethnic boundaries;⁵ the wider cultural parameters of the region or its shared historical experiences of the past several thousand years are therefore obscured.

10,11

A wider perspective has distinct advantages. It enables us to deal with the problems of textile-producing cultures now divided by national borders. Common historical experiences that have influenced textile arts across the entire region can be examined, and many useful comparisons can be made within and between ethnic groups that otherwise would be impossible. While this book is generously illustrated with material from Indonesia, indicating the extraordinary richness of its textile traditions, fine examples of fabrics from Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, Laos and other parts of mainland Southeast Asia have been included.

6,7

8,9

Many studies of Southeast Asian textiles have focused on the geographic or ethnic divisions within the region,⁶ while others have concentrated upon a descriptive account ordered according to decorative techniques.⁷ Both of these aspects form an important part of the material of this study. However, instead of concentrating on the differences implicit within Southeast Asian textiles - from either a technical or an ethnic perspective - I have searched for the connections and the meanings that lie within this diversity.⁸ Southeast Asia's quest for design and its receptiveness to certain splendid, decorative ideas from outside the region are seen in the creative transformations in local and foreign designs, material and decorative techniques. The book, therefore, is not arranged geographically or by ethno-linguistic group. However, a checklist of the textiles in the book according to ethnic and geographic origin appears in the index. The juxtaposition of cloths of different sources, techniques and functions is intended to illuminate certain shared features as well as the uniqueness of particular responses to common influences.

kamben cerek breastcloth Balinese people, east Bali, Indonesia handspun cotton, natural dyes tapestry weave 220.0 x 53.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.3173

kandit waist-sash; ceremonial hanging Tausug people, Sulu archipelago, Philippines silk, dyes tapestry weave 357.0 x 36.5 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.1223

Two similar designs appear on early twentieth-century tapestry weave textiles from Hindu Bali in Indonesia and the Islamic Tausug people of the southern Philippines. Both are worked in a geometric tapestry weave, known by the Tausug as siyabit. The open windows of the Balinese tapestry weave appear to have been achieved by a combination of carefully arranged groups of warp threads and the insertion, at intervals in the weft, of palm-leaf slivers that were removed on completion of the textile. Despite the contrast between the sombre green, red, yellow and natural brown handspun Balinese cotton and the luminuous pink, blue, orange and purple of the Tausug silk, both fabrics contain comparable interpretations of popular Southeast Asian diamond grid and zigzag patterns.

Outside pressures and indigenous responses are familiar foci for historians of Southeast Asia. The region is strategically situated at an important international crossroad between major global centres of population. Over many centuries it has been a destination for a constant stream of visitors from both neighbouring and distant foreign lands. These have included explorers and adventurers, foreign envoys, and the soldiers and sailors who accompanied them. Some merely passed through Southeast Asia while others came to control new territories for their rulers. Petty traders and the agents of large and powerful enterprises were lured to Southeast Asia by the possibilities of new markets and the quest for commodities. Among the newcomers were many who professed religious beliefs foreign to Southeast Asians - and were keen to proselytise. There were also those who, driven from their homeland by poverty or persecution, sought a land of hope and opportunity. Some were only transient visitors while others stayed longer. Many newcomers, however, never returned to their original homeland, settling permanently in Southeast Asia. Most have left some imprint on the cultures of the region.

(detail) kumo hanging; ceremonial gift T'boli people, Mindanao, Philippines abaca fibre, natural dyes warp ikat 40.0 x 864.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1989.397

malong landap woman's skirt Maranao people, Mindanao, Philippines silk, dyes tapestry weave 94.0 x 165.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.1250

While similar textiles can be found in cultures from geographically distant parts of Southeast Asia, the fabrics of neighbouring cultures may have evolved along very different paths. On Mindanao, for example, two ethnic groups produce fabrics and garments which use different materials, decorative techniques and iconography. The Maranao weave in imported silk in bands of clear bright colours. On an early twentieth-century example purple and green bands are joined into a cylinder with intricate multicoloured tapestry-woven bands (langkit). The T'boli still create ancient warp ikat (t'nolak) resist patterns of spirals, rhombs and keys in red and black vegetable dyes against the natural shades of the locally grown wild banana fibre. This panel of t'nolak dates from the nineteenth century.

phabiang ceremonial shawl Tai Nuea people, Sam Nuea region, Laos handspun cotton, silk, natural dyes supplementary weft weave 119.0 x 43.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1986.1927

tampan ceremonial cloth Paminggir people, Lampung, Sumatra, Indonesia handspun cotton, natural dyes supplementary weft weave 74.0 x 80.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.1193

Similar techniques and patterns can be found on textiles in particular parts of Southeast Asia that are remote from each other. The supplementary weft weavings of the Tai Nuea of northern Laos bear a striking similarity to the ship-cloth weavings of southern Sumatra. Weavers in both regions have developed intricate asymmetrical designs filled with mythical creatures carrying anthropomorphic riders. The central figure is represented on this brown and natural Sumatran tampan with a lozenge-shaped body while on the Tai cloth a similar motif sometimes appears as a separate diamond mandala. Birds, smaller dragon shapes, and shrine structures appear in varying degrees of realism on each of these nineteenth-century textiles, and both contain fine detail worked in key and spiral configurations. On other examples woven by these peoples, the prominent banded borders are surprisingly similar.

pua kumbu ceremonial cloth Iban people, Sarawak, Malaysia handspun cotton, natural dyes warp ikat 185.0 x 247.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1983.27

Anthropomorphic figures are among the oldest symbols found on textiles. On this nineteenth-century pua, male figures appear in one half and female figures in the other. Such human forms often represent significant ancestors or deities. Two central panels and additional borders composed of stripes and smaller creatures on each side, are worked in red and dark brown vegetable dyes against natural cream handspun cotton.

kamben geringsing patelikurisi cloth for ritual wear and use Balinese people, Tenganan, Bali, Indonesia handspun cotton, natural dyes double ikat 214.0 x 39.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1980.726

The three stark mandala that separate sets of smaller shrine and stupa shapes, still recognized by the Hindu weavers of Tenganan as small house temples (sanggar) and sources of holy water (cupu), are strong reminders of the Indian influence on Southeast Asian art. One of the stylized forms flanking the shrines is said to be the dog (asu) motif. The floral star shapes are the scented ivory offering flower (sigading). This is an early twentieth-century example of the intricate double ikat technique, in which the brown and black resist -dyed warp and weft threads have been loosely woven on a simple backstrap loom into a fabric on which both warp and weft patterns are visible. Like many geringsing textiles, this cloth's name (patelikur) indicates the width or number of bundles of warp thread that are required for its making.

lengkung léhér ceremonial collar Malay and Abung people, south Sumatra, Indonesia commercial wool and cotton cloths, gold alloy ornaments appliqué 48.0 x 54.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1985.615

This gold-studded necklet worn by Malay brides is modelled on the cloud collar of Chinese ceremonial costume. Many of the propitious symbols it displays were worked in low grade gold alloy by Straits Chinese smiths during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The green base-cloth and red trim are of imported factory-manufactured cloth. The selection of images appears to be random. Animals from the Chinese zodiac appear in realistic shapes -the horse, the goat or buffalo, the rooster and the dog-lion. Within decorative roundels are other animals and floral images - bats, butterflies, phoenix, fish and lotus - while the Chinese lotus image (ho hua) is also depicted in vases (ping). The thistle, and in particular, the solid central crown are European decorative devices.

hinggi kombu man's cloth Sumbanese people, east Sumba, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes warp ikat, band weaving, staining 69.0 x 311.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.580

The sacrificial chicken or cock is often represented on ceremonial textiles. Although many flying creatures, both real and mythical, can be found in Southeast Asian fabric design, the cock has been a feature of village life and art since prehistoric times. Between each pair of confronting cocks are fish and squid motifs. Other bands include smaller chickens and snakes. In the central section the dyer has created a schematic design from bird and squid forms, in keeping with the custom of filling this part of the cloth with motifs adapted from imported textiles. Rich saturated natural dyes are usect on this cloth which reflects a style popular at the turn of this century. At each end of a fine Sumba hinggi the weaver incorporates the unwoven sections of the warp fringe as wefts into a new warp that lies across the end of the woven fabric. The effect is a strong bright striped band (kabakil).

dodot royal ceremonial skirtcloth Indramayu district, Java, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes batik 207.0 x 357.5 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.3163

Dodot, voluminous ceremonial batik wraps, are more than twice as large as kain panjang skirtcloths. They are decorated in patterns appropriate to their use by the Javanese nobility as ceremonial and dance costume. This is a version of the scenes of cosmic mountain and forest landscape known as semen in which the chevron peaks of mountain ranges and vague representations of buildings, possibly shrines, can be discerned. The huge, stylized, double-wing motif, the mirong, appears in each corner of the dodot. It is often identified as the garuda bird of Hindu mythology, which, over time, has become a symbol of many Southeast Asian courts. Other smaller mirong and far (the single-wing motif) are scattered throughout the freely drawn design. This early twentieth-century batik is dyed in the unusual olive tones of the Indramayu district, west of Cirebon on Java's north coast, where Javanese and Sundanese cultures blend.

tali banang man's ceremonial sword-belt Buginese people, Sulawesi, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes tablet weaving 12.0 x 380.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.1989

The Islamic inscription in Kufic calligraphy reads 'There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His prophet'. While this is written in Arabic, inscriptions on other textiles from the Southeast Asian region also appear in local Malay languages. Tablet-woven bands were used as belts, straps, bindings and even stitched into special betel-nut bags by the women of central and south-west Sulawesi. This nineteenth-century sword-belt is formed from one long strip using a rare tablet weaving method which includes even the tubular loop. The colours, indigo-blue and white with red borders, may have evoked the same talismanic protection for the warrior as strands of twined threads in these tricolours often do elsewhere in Southeast Asia.

12,

13,14,

17,18

The textile arts of Southeast Asia reflect these diverse influences: the ancestor figures of earliest legend, the sacred mandala of the Hindu-Buddhist world, the zodiac menagery of Chinese iconography, the flowing calligraphy of Islam and the lace of the West. This book explores some of these foreign influences and the imaginative and exciting local responses to the new ideas and materials.

15

The study begins by examining the earliest forms of textiles and the decorative techniques associated with them. Some of the essential raw materials have an ancient history in Southeast Asia and prehistorians and archaeologists provide clues to a number of the earliest textile techniques, designs and patterns. Certain motifs and symbols, still evident today, seem to have had a very long history throughout the region. Since textiles are an integral part of Southeast Asian life, an exploration of the most ancient cultural practices and social organization contributes to an understanding of the functions of cloth.

16,19

It is with this ancient but well-established artistic base that the two earliest and strongest cultural forces in the region - India and China - interacted. Geographic proximity has contributed to this process since certain parts of Southeast Asia have had a more intensive and continuous contact. This is particularly evident where the ethnic, linguistic and cultural influence of southern China is to be found among many of the peoples of northern Thailand, Burma, Laos and Vietnam. A number of ethnic groups are also spread across southern China into neighbouring states. In a similar fashion, the Naga people straddle the border between India and Burma.

tengkuluak; kain sandang woman's headcloth; shouldercloth Minangkabau people, west Sumatra, Indonesia silk, cotton, gold thread, natural dyes supplementary weft weave, bobbin lace 246.0 x 83.5 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.576

This sumptuous ceremonial textile has wide, gold and silk, striped end sections which glow against a rich purple centre. The major motifs are variations on stars (bintang). While cloths of this supplementary weft style have been made for centuries, the influence of European fashion and textile techniques has led to the addition of lace edges and fringes on this nineteenth-century example.

Chinese and Indians sailed the waters of Southeast Asia in the same centuries, although the intensity and directness of their respective influence varied over time and place throughout the region. Indian influence, especially in the form of Indian textiles, continued after the arrival of the Europeans, while the impact of Chinese culture became more direct with large-scale migrations from southern China to the European colonies during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

20

Throughout Asia, the history of textiles largely follows the history of trade, and the strategic position of the Southeast Asian region and its bountiful natural resources attracted trade from early times. Islam has been a religious element in Southeast Asia since the twelfth century. Traders from India and Persia, and even China, along with travellers from the Middle East, spread Islam into Southeast Asia where it became a dominant political and cultural force during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.⁹ I have tried to establish the distinctive contributions of Islam to Southeast Asian textile art.

21

European political and economic supremacy afte'r the eighteenth century affected the development of Southeast Asian textile traditions, even though the objects they traded and the symbols of power they manipulated were not always produced by Europeans themselves. Indian textiles, acquired and distributed through European trading monopolies, took on meanings and functions unique to the cultures of Southeast Asia. At the same time, certain local textile designs and techniques were influenced by European textile art. The West is still a powerful force in Southeast Asia and continues to influence textiles into the twentieth century.

TEXTILES, HISTORY, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE

Textiles provide insights into the history of Southeast Asian societies and much of the textile history is closely tied to the conventional accounts of Southeast Asia's past. Sumptuous gold brocades and silk garments were the finest products of those Southeast Asian court centres that were the wielders of power and the patrons of the arts. Legends and court chronicles in Southeast Asia record the meetings, migrations and marriages between local rulers and the courts of India, China and the Middle East, and textiles illustrate the cultural diversity that has developed from such exchanges.

lelangit (?) canopy Peranakan Chinese people, north-coast Java, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes batik 270.0 x 255.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.3091

Huge batik canopies were a significant feature of ceremonies within the immigrant Chinese communities along the north coast of Java in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This example is in the rich red dyes for which the Lasem district is famous. The animal motifs, that include the central motif of the dog-lion (qilin, kilin), male and female phoenix, geese, oxen, deer, elephants and butterflies, symbolize the hopes for longevity, marital felicity, fertility and other blessings. Strewn through the field and borders are minor motifs, beribboned auspicious symbols, cloud shapes and Chinese flowers such as the lotus. Such symbols suggest the use of these large textiles at marriage festivities. While the batik's motifs closely follow Chinese models, its general design structure, with wide equal borders and floral sinuous flowering trees in each corner, also appears to have been influenced by a type of painted Indian cotton chintz, which was imported into Southeast Asia for centuries (Maxwell, 1990). The unique Javanese waxing pen (canting) was used to execute the hand-drawn batik.

bi ceremonial hanging Acehnese people, Sumatra, Indonesia cotton, wool, silk, gold thread, sequins, glass beads appliqué, couching, embroidery, lace 64.0 x 208.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.1986

This long red embroidered panel (bi) was hung around the bed or throne (pelaminan) at celebrations of weddings or circumcisions in the Acehnese and Malay communities of coastal Sumatra. Among the floral and foliated couched gold thread patterns, other realistic motifs appear. The mythical bouraq (burak), Muhammad's mount for his visit to Heaven, is shown with a female head and the winged body of a horse. Under one burak, a swastika of Buddhist origins can be seen. The embroidered Malay inscription in Kufic script on the creature's flanks, though missing some sequins, seems to wish those who marry happiness (menikah) and good fortune (selamat). The motifs are presented in the formal symmetrical style popular on Islamic textiles such as Mughal hangings and Central Asian carpets, although the structure of these panels is also similar to certain Chinese ceremonial hangings found throughout Southeast Asia. Early twentieth century

kain sarong woman's skirt Eliza van Zuylen (1863-1947), Pekalongan, Java, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes batik 106.0 x 200.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.3170

During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the immigrant and mestizo European and Chinese women living in Indonesia began to wear cylindrical batik cotton skirts. They added their own preferred motifs to the multitude of existing batik designs. Bird motifs such as the swallow and swan appeared amid bouquets of European flowers, particularly on the contrasting head-panels. Even the lotus is depicted in European naturalistic style typical of these designs. This batik with the studio mark of the famous atelier, E. van Zuylen, a workshop that operated from 1890 to 1946 (de Raadt-Apell, 1980: 13), still uses the traditional north-coast Javanese red and blue dyes against a white ground.

The form and the intensity of each foreign cultural influence changed with time. The art of India under Mughal rule was not the same art that inspired the great Hindu-Buddhist temples of Southeast Asia; Chinese culture in the eighth century was very different from the late nineteenth century; the Spanish in the fifteenth century presented a different image of European culture from the Dutch in the early twentieth century; Islam in India is not the same as in the Arab world. Moreover, the Great Traditions of Asia and Europe were transformed into Lesser Traditions with trade and distance. The Chinese peasant fleeing his homeland, the Gujarati merchant-pedlar, the Dutch colonial soldier and the Islamic teacher-traveller did not represent the great artistic centres or courts of their cultures. The objects and impressions that reached Southeast Asia were unlikely to have been the finest that the East and West could produce. In fact, historians cannot agree about what Southeast Asians really saw of the arts of the Great Traditions of India and China and there is much debate about the actual means by which new philosophies, religions and arts were transmitted to the distant lands of Southeast Asia.

Since traditional textile production in Southeast Asia was exclusively the task of women, textiles are able to show history from a different perspective by reflecting a female view of the contact between different cultures and are an alternative to the princely epics of war, succession and dominance. Textiles also remind us that many cultures and traditions existed outside the powerful court centres and kingdoms that dominate most accounts of Southeast Asian history. Many of the fabrics illustrated here - particularly the warp-decorated vegetable fibre textiles - provide valuable information about life in some of the more isolated and remote locations in Southeast Asia not directly in contact with the centres of international power and trade.

Perhaps the most difficult influences to assess are those of any one Southeast Asian culture upon its neighbours. Interregional influences have existed since prehistoric times, and while changes in textile design have often resulted from the political hegemony of a particular group during certain periods, most have been subtly absorbed and have passed undocumented. However, the important role of decorative textiles in establishing group identities has contributed to great diversity of colour, pattern and style.

Transformations have not only occurred in textile technique and design. The function and meaning of Southeast Asian textiles changed over time to accommodate new circumstances, new political structures and new belief systems. As religious ceremonies have changed, so too has the role of textiles. Changing notions of modesty, for example, have contributed to the development of new garments in the region and new applications for existing fabrics. Various foreign influences have gradually encouraged changes away from rectangular and cylindrical cloths towards more structured clothing.

22,23

Sometimes old cloths take on new meanings with new ideas from the modern world, and when ancient heirloom textiles are too fragile to be used as in the past, locally made substitutes have often assumed some of the status of the heirloom models, even those originally obtained from foreign sources. The original meanings of patterns have also changed and nowadays weavers often look to their immediate world to explain the meaning of motifs and are no longer aware of what they may have meant to their ancestors. Old motifs have sometimes been retained or reworked, often appearing with new symbols on the same textile. Recent social, religious and cultural change merely continues a process which has been occurring throughout history though at a dramatically faster rate.

(detail) patolu (Gujarat, India); sindé (Lio, Flores, Indonesia) treasured heirloom and ritual object Gujarat region, India; Indonesia silk, gold thread, natural dyes double ikat 462.0 x 104.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1981.1140

(detail) luka semba male ritual leader's shawl Lio people, Flores, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes warp ikat 209.0 x 72.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1981.1142

The sources of the motifs on Southeast Asian cloth were sometimes imported luxury fabrics such as the silk patola from north-west India. One of the most popular of all Indian textiles imported into Southeast Asia was the star-patterned patolu, known today in Patan (the only centre in Gujarat still to weave the double ikat silks) as the basket design, chhabadi bhat (Biihler and Fischer, 1979, vol.l: 77). The pattern appears on different coloured grounds, the most common versions having red or yellow backgrounds. The popularity of this textile inspired weavers from tnany Southeast Asian cultures to produce their own versions of its motifs and even design structure, which appear in cotton and silk, in batik and ikat, throughout the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia.

On some Southeast Asian fabrics the original Indian design was faithfully copied while on other textiles it was absorbed and incorporated into existing patterns. There is a striking congruity between certain ancient Indian textiles and even twentieth-century Lio cloths. However, while the brightly coloured Indian double ikats were obviously the original source of the dark brown and cream Lio designs, these trade cloths are now rare in this part of Indonesia, and Lio weavers nowadays associate the star-shaped motifs with certain types of local sea crabs.

kalamkari (south India); ma 'a or mawa (Toraja, Sulawesi, Indonesia) treasured heirloom and ritual object Petaboli district, Coromandel coast, India; Toraja region, central Sulawesi, Indonesia handspun cotton, natural dyes and mordants mordant painting, batik 225.0 x 134.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.1093

Indian trade cloths have been valued heirlooms in the Toraja region of central Sulawesi for centuries. These figurative red and blue cloths (ma'a, mawa, also known as mbesa in the northern Toraja districts) appear to have generated a new genre of hand-drawn and block printing techniques among the Toraja people themselves. This particular example dates from the 1720s.

This genre of Indian mordant-painted cotton cloth (palampore) with its ornate flowering tree and border of garlands and bouquets, was created specifically for the European market. Many, however, reached Southeast Asia where their exotic foliage also had wide appeal and provided a rich source of design.

(detail) kain panjang skirtcloth Cirebon, Java, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes batik 106.0 x 258.3 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.3103

The motif of this particular hand-drawn batik from the north coast of Java is clearly derived from the designs on Indian palampore, the mordant-painted and dyed cotton bedspreads and hangings containing the 'tree of life' motif which were traded for many centuries into Southeast Asia. Indian palampore are now extremely rare heirlooms in java. However, this batik, although made around 1970, shows minimal local interpretation. The pattern, in brown and blue against a white ground, is known in Cirebon as the coconut (krambil). The culture of the people of this coastal region of west Java displays both Javanese and Sundanese elements.

24,25

Design elements are formed from a variety of apparently conflicting symbols derived from different philosophies. The paths by which both objects and ideas arrived were often more circuitous than the trade routes. For example, the so-called 'tree of life' was a popular design on both Western and Oriental textiles traded into the region, but the history and development of this motif followed a complex path across several continents on its way to Southeast Asia (Maxwell, 1990). It is often impossible to distinguish clearly between symbolic representation and decorative devices, and to decide at which stage certain designs moved from one sphere to the other. In some cultures the break has been so dramatic that it is no longer possible to attach significant meaning to symbolism on textiles, although their aesthetic qualities may be greatly admired.

28

26,27

29,30

Textiles do not represent discrete instances of historical or cultural change; numerous decorative techniques, and several sources of patterning may have contributed to a single cloth. Many textiles can only be understood by reference to the history of other cloths, other objects and other cultures. A ceremony performed in an isolated village may require many textiles of different age, technique, and origin - local cloths and neighbouring Southeast Asian or imported Indian and European fabrics. In Borneo, an Iban Dayak festival may draw a display of Chinese porcelain, Javanese gongs, ancient or European beads, Malay gold brocade and batik from Java, as well as large numbers of textiles woven by the Iban themselves. Certain lost Southeast Asian textile traditions still survive among the fine heirlooms of a neighbouring culture and some types of Indian cloths, no longer found in India, are still valued as sacred treasures in many parts of Southeast Asia.

Throughout the book I have often used the convention of the ethnographic present, although in many recent cases, and in some instances for the last century, circumstances have so changed South-east Asian cultures that textiles are no longer made or used as they once were. In certain parts of Southeast Asia, while cloths are still woven, they are a poor substitute for the beautiful objects of previous centuries, and their role in ritual is often severely diminished. The post-war period of nationalism which brought about the end of European colonial domination has had a vital impact upon artistic traditions. The conclusion of the book explores the problems facing traditional arts in the twentieth century where rapid social and cultural change and the impact of cheap, imported or manufactured substitutes threaten remaining textile traditions. The cultural milieu and social systems that once required beautiful traditional fabrics, but absorbed exciting foreign ideas and decorative influences, may soon disappear.

bowl Vietnam stoneware body, cobalt blue under glaze Art Gallery of South Australia 834C6

kain panjang woman's skirtcloth Peranakan Chinese people, Lasem, Java, Indonesia cotton, natural dyes, gold leaf batik, gold leaf gluework 272.5 x 104.5 cm Australian National Gallery 1983.3683

Foreign textiles were not the only sources of inspiration for local weavers; other exotic and expensive items of trade contained motifs that influenced their work. Ceramics similar to this fifteenth-century bowl from Vietnam with the popular fish motif, have been traded throughout the region from China and mainland Southeast Asia since the Han dynasty of 206 BC to AD 220. These objects are often used together with textiles in important ceremonies such as mortuary rites. Many motifs of apparent Chinese origin on Southeast Asian textiles, especially animals, fish and birds, appear to have been adapted from designs on porcelain. Such Chinese influences on motif and style are apparent on this late nineteenth-or early twentieth-century hand-drawn batik from Lasem on the north coast of Java. The main design consists of red and blue-black carp, lotus flowers and crustaceans, with obscure phoenix shapes inside the rectangular panel (papan). This skirtcloth would have been wrapped around the torso so that the decorated end-panel of triangular tumpal designs remained outermost. The addition of fine gold leaf indicates that the cloth was intended for festive occasions, such as weddings.

A NOTE ON DATING AND TERMINOLOGY

It is exceptionally difficult to date precisely Southeast Asian traditional textiles. Changes in technique, materials or designs were often sporadic and subtle and passed largely unrecorded. Innovations in one area sometimes took decades to reach another. For example, while inhabitants of some islands in eastern Indonesia enthusiastically accepted the introduction of commercial cotton thread in the late nineteenth century, women on neighbouring islands continued to spin cotton with a drop-weight spindle into the 1980s. Nevertheless, there are factors we can use to provide tentative dates for many textiles. Sometimes accurate information about origins is available when textiles enter public collections and occasionally the cloths themselves contain evidence. The later batik cloth from java, for example, sometimes features the date or the name of the artisan or workshop, and in some cases textiles can be identified with a popular artistic phase. In some parts of Southeast Asia, as a result of cultural stagnation or social change, the craft of making traditional textiles had deteriorated or even totally disappeared by a certain date.

tirai ceremonial hanging Malay people, east Sumatra, Indonesia cotton, wool, batik cloth, gold thread, lead-backed mirrors, beads couching, embroidery, appliqué 60.5 x 88.5 cm Australian National Gallery 1984.2001

This nineteenth-century Malay hanging is used to decorate the bridal or circumcision chamber and throne (pelaminan). Used for ceremonies which combine Islamic and Hindu rituals with ancient Southeast Asian customs, its lining consists of pieces of cer.tury-old, hand-drawn batik and handspun cotton plaid fabric from other parts of Indonesia which have been joined with pieces of European chintz and flannel. The form of the sparkling black, red and yellow textile may be compared with certain Chinese hangings while the pendant 'tongues' suggest Central Asian influence. The design incorporates Chinese-Persian motifs of trees and birds that have cosmic appeal in many Southeast Asian cultures. The three-branched trees, also a popular motif in Mughal art, are framed by border patterns formed from Islamic arabesques and Chinese cloud designs. The factory-manufactured lace surround suggests the influence of European textiles.

kain lekok women's ceremonial skirts Maloh people, west Kalimantan, Indonesia cotton, flannel, beads, shells, sequins beading, appliqué, lace 52.0 x 45.0 cm; 51.0 x 42.0 cm Australian National Gallery 1982.1300; 1982.1301

Bead and shell appliqué are one of the most ancient means of ornamenting the human body in Southeast Asia and are fixed to matting, bark-cloth and woven fibres. On these twentieth-century examples, a myriad of tiny, gaily coloured seed-beads has been threaded into bands of serpents (naga) and human figures (kakalétau) which have then been stitched to a black cotton base fabric and decorated further with an appliqué of split shells, lace and brightly coloured imported cloth. The linings are made from old fragments of Malay plaid and Javanese batik fabric.

It is also possible to use the comparative material in a number of large ethnographic collections in Europe, the United States and in Southeast Asia itself. The collecting of ethnographic objects began during the nineteenth century as part of the attempt to document the evolutionary ideas of social theorists such as Spencer. However, although many museums contain large and valuable collections of Southeast Asian textiles, including some of the earliest cloths from the region, their usefulness as a point of reference is often limited by the extent and accuracy of the institutions' records. The same applies to the extensive and important photographic archives in a number of museums.

Many textiles illustrated in this book date from the nineteenth century, a period of rococo elaboration in the decorative arts of many Southeast Asian cultures, as it was during the same period in Europe. Many of the grand symbols of sovereignty associated with Southeast Asian royalty were consolidated during this period and have remained caught as the 'traditional' form of dress in the modern era. Coinciding with the colonial domination of nearly the entire region, cultural distinctions between groups became more rigid. Probably more than ever before, clothing became the visible sign of the relationship between an individual and his or her social milieu and a focus for differentiation between individuals and between groups.

Wherever possible, accurate local language names are provided for the textiles illustrated. These terms often provide important information about the history of the textiles and the people who have made and used them and have been gleaned from a variety of sources including published literature and data collected during fieldwork in Southeast Asia. Where there is some doubt about the accuracy of the local language terms provided, this has been indicated by a question mark in parenthesis. In a few cases, the local language names of certain textiles have not yet been recorded. This has been indicated in the captions by a series of period marks. An English language descriptive term for each item has also been attempted. However, the use of anglicized expressions derived from Southeast Asian languages, such as the term 'sarong', are misleading and imprecise. For the same reasons certain national language terms and their English translations now in common usage have also been avoided. For example, the term 'selimut', the Indonesian word for blanket often applied to large rectangular cloths, is quite inaccurate since most of these textiles are in fact men's wraps or ceremonial hangings.

For those readers who are not textile specialists, there are many technical terms that refer specifically to weaving and textile techniques and which may need further elaboration. A full explanation of many of these terms would have required a lengthy appendix so only a basic glossary of the most important has been included. However, interested readers are referred to some of the many works listed in the bibliography dealing with the techniques and processes of Southeast Asian textiles. An exhaustive general treatment of this subject can be found in Emery's comprehensive study, The Primary Structure of Fabrics (1980).

The metric measurements given for each textile in accompanying captions include any fringes where these are a part of the fabric structure. Most of the photographs of textiles are from the collection of the Australian National Gallery and although ethnographic completeness has neither been possible nor been attempted, these examples have been supplemented with material drawn from the collections of other institutions and from photographs taken throughout Southeast Asia. The name of the relevant institution and the record or accession number is provided for each museum textile illustrated.

In west Kalimantan, Indonesia, two Maloh women in festive dress combine their own locally made beaded skirts (kain lekok) with warp ikat and tapestry weave jackets made by their lban neighbours and gold thread brocade shouldercloths from one of the Malay groups of coastal Borneo, probably Sambas.

Detail of Plate 132