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CHAPTER FOUR

VARIOUS ACTIONS USED TO BUILD THE 410

Another approach in sketching the evolution of the 410 bore is to review the different actions used in their construction.

There is no record of a 410 smoothbore having been made before the development of the breechloader, which goes back to Pauly’s 1812 hinged breech lifted gun that exposed the chambers for loading. LeFaucheux developed, in 1834, drop-down barrels, which then led to the pinfire gun. This was followed by Needham’s invention of the needle fire breechloader action after Daw, in 1862, sparked the commercial success of the hammerless breech. Murcott invented the first lever-cocking hammerless sidelock in 1871. Needham, an inventive genius, patented the first ejector and barrel cocking system in 1874, improved by Greener in 1881 [1].

During this era, action locks slowly evolved in satisfaction and reliability in the form of bar- and back-action sidelocks. However, in 1875, a truly revolutionary action was developed, the hammerless boxlock.

Actions are the heart of a shotgun, the source of its single greatest expense, and the cause of much inflamed debate over the merits of the various action locks. As part of the discussion of the 410 bore’s application to these actions, a summary of the essential components of this history and debate may be illuminating.

1. Sidelocks

The sidelock action is the oldest and has been in continual use since the muzzleloaders of the pre-flintlock era. In rudimentary form, they are found in matchlocks and wheellocks of the late medieval centuries. External hammers, the money part of the lock, go back into the mists of the early second millennium.

The sidelock action comes in two forms, the bar action and the back action. All parts of the action are attached to the side-plate. The back action has the apex of the “V”-shaped mainspring pointing towards the shooter and the mainspring is located behind the hammer (called tumbler if not exposed and, therefore, inside the lock) and trigger. The lock mechanism is behind the axle. The bar action has the apex of the “V”-shaped mainspring pointed forward or away from the shooter. The mainspring is located in front of the hammer and trigger along the “bar” of the action in front of the breech face. This lock mechanism is in front of the axle upon which the hammer swings.

The external plate appearance of the bar action is symmetrically rounded in its posterior aspect (see Figure 1 per Purdey catalog circa 1900).

The back action has two configurations. The 19th century and early 20th century back-action sideplate is characterized by a long, lean, tapered elegance. A later appearance in the back-action external plate duplicated the bar-action geometry, except that the visible pins are in a different place on the lockplate. For example, with the bar action, the visible stud or pin of the “V” mainspring is located at the most anterior portion of the external plate, the “shoe” of the action body. The back action has no such pin location.

The bar action requires deep inletting along the action bar, reducing frame strength in comparison to the back action. The latter has more metal in the frame at the angle of the breech and under the water table and is the action of choice for large caliber double rifles. Using one of three top bolts (doll’s head, Greener’s crossbolt, or Purdey’s third fastener rotary bolt) gives added support to the bar action.

Boothroyd, one of the greatest of all shotgun historians, describes the term, “bar-in-the-wood,” in which the “metal of the bar is recessed and the wood of the butt stock is carried forward over the metal.” He cites the MacNaughton “Edinburgh” action as a decorative example [2]. Beauty does not necessarily expense strength.

One of the important assets of the sidelock is the intercepting safety. This helps to maintain its popularity despite cost and complexity and remains part and parcel of a “Best”-quality back-or bar-action sidelock. This safety blocks the fall of the tumbler (internal hammer) in case the sear is accidentally jarred loose from its notch in the tumbler. Thus, this safety blocks both the effect of the trigger pull and accidental sear dislodgement.

The classical boxlock action has no intercepting safety for the sear. The boxlock safety simply blocks the trigger pull. It is noteworthy that the original Anson & Deeley boxlock patent in 1875 showed the safety blocking the tumbler and not the trigger pull. Greener made some boxlocks with the intercepting safety device [3]. Interestingly, the few American sidelocks, either bar-or back-action, made by Baker and L.C. Smith, did not have the intercepting feature, no doubt due to complexity, and hence, cost.

The back action is considered stronger than the bar action because the action bar is not cut away for inletting of the “V” mainspring as it is for the bar action, and the back-action locks are narrower. With less wood removed, this sidelock in hammerless configuration was and remains a preferred choice for many professional African hunters and for most quality gunmakers such as Holland & Holland and Rigby for the early 20th century Express double rifle. These back-action guns are nearly a solid unit with the barrels as there is little or no clearance between the action and barrel invaginations. Today’s large caliber Express double rifles by the great British makers are more for collectors for the guns’ decorative value, and are made with the bar-action sidelock.

Additional assets attributed to the sidelock are its superior balance and the most mechanically efficient angle between tumbler and sear resulting in superbly crisp trigger pulls [4]. These advantages may be more apparent than real, as any shooter of the round- or trigger-plate action in the Dickson or Perazzi or any user of a quality boxlock such as the Parker, the NID Ithaca, or the Westley Richards droplock will attest.

A further advantage in the sidelock action is its accessibility for cleaning and lubricating. Holland & Holland did develop for its bar-action sidelocks a hand-detachable variation in the first decade of the 20th century that immensely improved accessibility and subsequently became popular in “Best”-quality guns of many English gunmakers. Its ease of servicing is matched only by the Westley Richards droplock, patented in 1897, in which each lock is mounted on a floor plate, and this unit is then inserted into the bottom of the action box.

Figure 1: Lock diagram from a sidelock action.

1. Lock Plate

2. Tumbler or Hammer

3. Bridle

4. Sear

5. Intercepting Safety Sear

6. Mainspring

7. Swivel

8. Sear Spring

9. Intercepting Safety Sear Spring

Figure 2: The original form of the famous Anson and Deeley hammerless action, where the tumblers are cocked on the fall of the barrels. This is a particularly strong action that is notable for its economy of parts. It was first produced by Westley Richards, Birmingham, in 1876 and almost all modern boxlock guns are based on this model.

Among the hammerless bar-action locks, there were definable differences. The Purdey action, patented by Frederick Beesley in 1880, is an integrated system in which cocking the hammers, firing, and opening the breech (“self opener”) are powered by a single “V” spring. Conversely, the Holland & Holland action, initiated in 1883 by John Robertson, the gunmaking inventor who saved Boss from oblivion, was not an integrated power platform but was easier to build. This action is now seen in sidelocks throughout the world, especially high quality Spanish, Italian, and some British sidelock side-by-side doubles. Woodward’s Rogers action, based upon a John Rogers patent of 1881 in which the fall of the barrels “cocks a sidelock hammerless gun,” and Boss’ own creation represent significant variations [5].

Although the great British gun houses made many of their own locks, there were and continue to be individual lock makers of great repute. The past includes Brazier, Chitten, Saunders, Stanton, and Harper. The present includes A.A. Brown and York & Wallin, all of whom have supplied best quality locks to virtually every maker of best quality bar-action sidelocks in England.

A final consideration is an aesthetic one. The sidelock, because of its configuration, whether a bar or back action, remains the paragon of grace, elegance, and beauty among the double shotguns of the world.

2. Boxlocks

As the sidelock may be considered an evolutionary development beginning with the match- and wheellock in the 15th century, the boxlock was clearly revolutionary (see Figure 2 per Geoffrey Boothroyd).

This hammerless action, patented by Anson & Deeley in 1875 for Westley Richards (A&D action), was simplicity itself in which all parts were attached directly to the frame. It became and remains, given a certain standard in materials and workmanship, the most popular and cost-effective action for double guns in the world. All the quality American 410 doubles used this action or a variation, save the L.C. Smith back-action sidelock. And the vast majority of quality English and European 410 doubles use the boxlock action including great makers such as Holland & Holland, Webley & Scott, Churchill, Watson, Jeffery, Lancaster, Westley Richards, Cogswell & Harrison, Merkel, etc. Greener’s “box-like” action (Facile Princeps) was actually quite different and was patentable but was similar in effect, simplicity, and cost (see Greener chapter).

In fact, Webley & Scott and Midland supplied the boxlock action for many of these gunmakers in the first 70 years of the 20th century. Total numbers dwarf the comparatively few bar-action sidelock guns built in the 410 bore in the 20th century. Conversely, many back-action hammer 410s were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially by Watson and Cogswell & Harrison.

The hammerless boxlock has five main components consisting of the cocking lever; the sear; the tumbler, including the firing pin; the mainspring; and the ejector, which was added in 1886 by Deeley with modification in 1893 by Southgate. The action was cocked by the fall of the barrels, the first successful design to do so. This compares with the usual 22 parts in the finest bar-action sidelock. Its essence is simplicity and ease of manufacturing and maintenance. Its strength must compare favorably with the back-action sidelock. W.J. Jeffery Company chose the boxlock for its 600-bore Express double elephant rifle [6]. The A & D action, when combined with the Scott spindle and top-lever and the Purdey underbolt, became the world standard [7]. In fact, this action was “popular” in America, according to Tate, until the McKinley tariff of 1890 made the “importation prohibitive.”

The lock components are supported by and contained within the action frame. The boxlock removes more metal from the action bar to accommodate the lock. The tumbler or hammer pin extends through the action body from side to side just below the 90-degree “angle” created by the action water table and the action face (standing breech). This angle point is the boxlock action’s greatest vulnerability. This is a decided weakness in comparison to the bar- and back-action sidelocks that will leave more metal in the frame. Parenthetically, this distinction relates only to the strength at the frame “angle.” For example, in comparison to the boxlock, the amount of wood removed for the sidelock action fit to wood renders the sidelock stock vulnerable where it meets the frame. The intercepting safety, a William Anson patent in 1882, was added to the better quality A & D boxlock guns to prevent the gun’s discharge absent a trigger pull!

The mainspring is “V” shaped in English guns and “coiled” in many American guns such as the Parker. The “V”-shaped springs are thought to be faster, stronger, and more durable than the “coil” spring.

Greener’s good words on the boxlock include “faster firing” than the sidelock and more opportunity for a cosmetic effect using “sham sidelocks” [8]. These are plates applied to the wood stock just behind the action body, now known as “sideplates” or inexplicably called the “third type of sidelock” by the dean of shotgun historians, G. Boothroyd [9]. They can be distinguished from sidelock actions by the absence of any lock pins seen through the plates and by the forward position of the trigger. Greener pictures a round-action Dickson with highly engraved sideplates manufactured before the turn of the century. In modern times, Browning, Francotte, and other American and European companies have popularized these sideplates for decorative purposes.

A variation of the Anson & Deeley boxlock is the Westley Richards droplock designed by Leslie Taylor and patented in 1897. Each lock is mounted on the floor plate of the action box. It can be inserted and removed from the action at will and without tools save one’s fingers.

Before leaving the sidelock and boxlock actions, three topics should be mentioned: bolts, hammers, and springs.

Bolts

A digression to discuss bolts for a moment is important because this development influenced the use and acceptance of the various actions. The bolting system is essential on breech openers to counter the three firing forces:

1. Axial (horizontal arrow to the right)

2. Radial (curved arrow pointing upwards and curved to the left)

3. Bending (arrow pointing vertically upwards)

Underbolts or barrel lugs (bites) are powerful thick extensions from the under flats of the barrels. They may be single, like LeFaucheux’s pinfire of 1834, the first breechloader to spark the conversion from muzzleloaders. Most subsequent quality American shotguns such as the Parker had a single bolt. Double bolts (two lugs), an invention by Purdey, are seen in most British and European shotguns and in the Winchester Model 21. In the quality double shotgun, these bolts or lugs are intrinsically forged with the barrels, called the chopper-lump construction. Other such lug assemblies included the dovetail in which the lug is brazed between the breech ends of the barrels. This was seen especially in the blackpowder hammer guns. A third assembly is the sleeved-on “monobloc” style as done today in Italy or Japan and rarely in British doubles.

The top bolt, which complements the underbolt, holds the barrel face to the standing breech and is of four basic types:

1. The doll’s head

2. Purdey’s “secret” extension, the so-called third fastener

3. The Greener crossbolt

4. The American-developed rotary bolt

The doll’s head reinforces the bar of the action and was developed by Westley Richards in 1864 and is widely used in American smoothbores such as the Parkers and many Lefevers. The Purdey “secret” or top extension (third fastener) supports the barrel underbolt and is used in many quality British and European double guns. The Greener crossbolt, patented in 1867, reinforces both the action bar and the underbolt and is seen in many continental guns, especially Germany’s Merkel, which uses a double crossbolt with over/under doubles, the so-called “double Kersten.” The rotary bolt also reinforces both the action bar and the barrel underbolt and is seen in L.C. Smith, A.H. Fox, and NID Ithaca guns. The New Ithaca Double is bolted solely by a top bolt, a tribute to the bolt’s effectiveness [10].

Hammers

A brief comment about hammers is necessary here. Prior to the 1870s, all hammers were exposed. These hammers were non-rebounding until John Stanton’s 1867 invention of the rebounding variety. Both types have three positions: cocked, half-cocked, and fired. The non-rebounding hammer’s firing pin remained indented in the cap of the cartridge, blocking the opening of the breech. The advantage of Stanton’s rebounding hammers, which quickly superseded the earlier type, was that the fired or down position is only momentary in the act of firing. Immediately following firing, the hammers rebound instantly to the half-cocked position. Then by fitting the firing pin with a coil spring, which caused the pin to withdraw from the cap after firing, the breech was easily opened. The half-cocked position is also a position of safety from an accidental discharge by an external blow or inadvertent trigger pull.¹

The historical record does not reveal a sidelock hammer 410 with non-rebounding hammers. This is consistent with the first 410 being manufactured after the 1870s when this type of hammer apparently ceased to exist.

Springs

In 1888, Burrard described the source of kinetic energy for the functioning of a gun as the release of distorted matter allowing it to return to its more natural state. Matter, or in this case “V”- shaped coiled or flat springs, has been geometrically deformed by applied energy from the shooter, taking advantage of the principle of leverage, and locked in that state of deformation. When the shooter’s energy releases this bit of matter, it returns to its more natural state and the gun’s rationale is realized. It is essential that this matter, the springs, are worked into the proper molecular configuration by craftsmen so that its geometry, both natural and unnatural, does the necessary work of safety cocking, firing, ejecting, and opening the breech [12].

In the second half of the 19th century, the “V” spring was used in virtually all British guns, however inexpensive [13]. Conversely, the coiled spring was used in most American guns regardless of expense, including the Parker, Ithaca, Fox, Winchester, and Remington [14]. European gunmakers were more eclectic.

Today the “V” spring is used primarily in the best grade British guns, while the modern American gun uses coiled springs. One of history’s greatest artists in gun engraving, the late Lynton McKenzie, started out as a master spring maker [15].

3. Other Actions

A. Trigger Plate

The next action of importance in the evolution of the shotgun is a variation of the boxlock called the “trigger plate” or “round action” and in Germany called the “Blitz.” In fact, this action, in primitive form, probably originated in Germany. Because of strong commercial ties between northern Europe and Scotland, this action, in modified form, was nourished in the industrial belly of southern Scotland, Edinburgh, and Glasgow.

All lock parts are connected to the trigger plate that fits the bottom of the frame. John Dickson and James MacNaughton, the two premier Scottish gunmakers, pioneered or developed this action between 1879 and 1887. Three advantages were apparent. The frame was very strong because no machining of the action body was necessary. The ensemble was very accessible for cleaning and repair. In addition, the aesthetics were compelling with a diminutive action body covered in wood [16].

No other British company used this action, and records of both Scottish companies reveal that the 410 bore was never built or attempted to be built until recently. Dickson attempted a single 410 round-action double in the 1990s, unsuccessfully, for they were unable to build a scaled-down 410 action. More recently, McKay Brown has built a 410 round-action double (see Dickson chapter).

In America, a variation of the action has been used in the Winchester 101 and the Remington 3200 in all bores. In Germany, where it is called the “Blitz,” Merkel uses the action. In Italy, Perazzi uses this action for its over/under because of its great frame strength. The Franchi 2000 series uses a variation. For decorative, stylistic, and engraving purposes, sideplates may be added as illustrated by a 1910 Dickson gun [8].

B. Bolt Action

This action, patented by Joseph Needham in 1852, with a later variation by Francis Bacon in 1870, was popularized in rifles and shotguns built by Rigby of Dublin and later London. There are no known double bolt-action 410s. However, the single-barrel bolt 410 became a popular gun for the gardener, taxidermist, and youth by 1900 with a high volume manufactured up to and after World War II.

Companies making them in England included Webley &Scott, BSA, and Midland. Webley & Scott’s single-barrel 410 bolt action, of which many thousands were built, was manufactured in lots of up to several hundred. With every lot or so, they would make a single “Deluxe” version. Today a “Deluxe” 410 is extremely rare and commands admiration and a handsome price (see Photo 1 in Webley & Scott chapter). In America, Mossberg, Stevens, and Marlin built many such guns.

C. Lever Action

This action became famous for its use in the preeminent rifles on the American frontier. My father used a 300-caliber lever-action Savage to hunt big game in the western United States for four decades from 1925 to 1965, as did many of his generation. Before that, it was used for sustenance and protection to survive and tame the American frontier. John Browning, the American firearms inventive genius, appears to have developed the first successful lever-action repeating shotgun, brought out by Winchester in 1887, in the 10 and 12 bore. The revised 1901 model was made until 1920 in the 10 bore. Kessler built a lever-action shotgun after World War II. Winchester, in the Model 89, and Remington built a single shot “falling (rolling) block” action shotgun, a version of the lever action [17].

The first lever-action 410-bore shotgun was built by Marlin from 1929 to 1932 and is described in detail in Chapter 10.

D. Sliding Barrel or Sliding/Rotatory Breech Action

This action has a most distinguished pedigree. Starting with Pauly’s 1812 hinged-breech fixed-barrel ensemble, a number of great names in mid-19th century gunmaking are associated with this action type. Its development continued in Europe and in England with the names of W.J. Harvey (1860), Joseph Needham (1862), Jeffery (1862), and James Purdey (1865) dotting the landscape [3]. Purdey built such an action for a 32-bore rifle in the mid-19th century.

It is clear that this action was developed earlier in Europe, and it appears that France was the only country where it was able to sustain a commercial life. Darne, the great gunmaking company of St. Etienne and considered the gunmaker’s “Birmingham” of France, produced such guns from 1881 to 1980. They first started with a rotary breech and then converted to a sliding breech with its long tapered look. They built all gauges with the exception of the 410 bore, according to available records. In 1984, Paul Bruchet, a former Darne production manager, resumed production and now will build a 410 bore in any grade on a custom basis. The gun is eccentric, elegant, highly functional, and recommended for the adventurous shotgunner.

E. Miscellaneous Actions

These are best illustrated by the various cane and walking stick guns made in Europe and England beginning before the turn of the century [18] (see Interesting Types of Smoothbore 410s chapter).

Commentary Applicable to the 410 bore

In England, the sidelock started its evolution long before the 18th century. Both the bar- and back-action guns slowly emerged towards greater refinement until the end of the 19th century with the final development of the Beesley bar-action ejector hammerless sidelock made by Purdey under patent. Apart from the possibility of a John Wilkes back-action 410 of 1876, there are no 410s recorded with either action until the 1880s. For example, Purdey produced at least one 410 with each the bar- and the back-action sidelock at that time (see Purdey chapter). There are few recorded best quality sidelock bar-action 410s from any of the great British gunmakers until the 1930s. It was in the late 1920s when Harry Lawrence built Purdey’s first bar-action hammerless 410.

The 1920s was the decade when the great American gunmakers began to build the 410 bore in their side-by-side configuration. Other British quality gunmakers did not begin their bar-action hammerless 410s until later. Boss built its first bar-action hammerless in the 1930s while Holland & Holland as well as Westley Richards waited until after World War II to do so.

After the Anson & Deeley revolution in 1875, the 410 with the hammerless boxlock action was made with increasing frequency by high-volume firms such as Webley & Scott and by local artisans and provincial gunmakers for the general public and young shooter. Often these firms and individual makers would send their product to one of the quality London gunmakers such as Holland & Holland, Churchill, Evans, Jeffery, and Cogswell & Harrison to be “shot and regulated” and sold under the firm’s name. There is no record of an in-house production of a boxlock 410 by such firms as Purdey, Boss, and Holland & Holland. Firms such as Greener, Watson, Beesley, Westley Richards, and Webley & Scott had their own in-house production of the 410 boxlock action, although even these firms often used components such as actions and barrels produced by “out workers” or local parts makers. Boxlock 410s manufactured by local artisans or high-volume firms—to be then precisioned and refined by the quality firm under whose name the gun would be sold—usually would have the inscription “Made for ... ” on the barrel rib.

In 1897, Westley Richards developed a refined variation of their boxlock, the droplock, of which there are six recorded in the 410 bore prior to 1990. They have resumed production of the 410 droplock within the past few years (see Westley Richards chapter).

In America, the 410 bore was made by the best quality firms from the mid-1920s onwards. Hence, this bore enjoyed the most advanced lock design of each manufacturer. For example, Ithaca did not begin 410 production until their latest and last configuration had started in 1926, the NID model. All quality companies except L.C. Smith made the 410 with their most advanced boxlock. The Smith 410 was a back-action sidelock with a coiled mainspring.

L.C. Smith, the only sidelock firm in America of any volume, did not start to manufacture the 410 until 1926 when its back-action hammerless sidelock was at its peak. Interestingly, L.C. Smith did build a number of bar-action sidelocks before the 20th century. However, they converted entirely to the back-action hammerless sidelock by 1900 because this type appeared to be stronger and simpler to build (see L.C. Smith chapter).

The more cheaply made 410s in America, such as those by Iver Johnson or Winchester, were started in or just after the 20th century’s second decade and were invariably hammer or hammerless boxlock actions. They were made in some volume. For example, the Iver Johnson single-barrel hammer 410, the Champion, started in 1916 and had a production run of over 5000, of which very few are now in existence. By today’s standards, it was a well-made gun, but in that day, it was treated as a barnyard tool and most did not survive the ravages of time, use, and abuse. The Winchester Model 20 was made from 1919 to 1924 with a total production of at least 23,616. This was an especially well-made boxlock in today’s terms.

By the end of World War II, most of the quality American manufacturers had virtually ceased production of the 410. The Browning’s Superposed, made under the fine standards of Belgium’s Fabrique Nationale (FN) Factory, made a 410 bore starting in 1959 and ceasing in 1983 when two American dealers brought into the United States the last of the FN-built 410 guns (see Browning chapter). The boxlock Olin Winchester Model 21 410 bore was brought out in 1952.

The British socialized economy of post World War II accelerated the hitherto gradual decline of the great British gunmakers. Some ceased to exist, some amalgamated with other firms, and some, such as Holland & Holland, Purdey, Westley Richards, and Boss limped along in a post-World War II atmosphere of envy, sloth, and hatefulness, the triple engines of British socialism. During this time, the high-quality bar-action sidelock 410 would appear rarely from one of these great makers, usually custom made for an American swell or an Arab potentate. Holland & Holland’s Northwood model and Webley & Scott’s Model 700 series continued to make a rare high-quality hammerless boxlock priced at least 75 percent cheaper than a comparable “Best”- quality British sidelock.

Today we look back upon the 1980s as a time when some of the pre-eminent British gunmakers such as Purdey, Holland & Holland, and Westley Richards began once again to thrive in Margaret Thatcher’s market-driven economy. Increased numbers of custom-made special-order bar-action 410s were made, usually for the American market. The 1990s, with these gunmakers retooling and with some being bought by large industrial or commercial multinational firms, ushered in a renaissance of quality gunmaking. Additionally, today the greatest volume of quality double 410s is being produced in Europe. The Spanish, Italian, and Belgium gunmakers are producing 410s in sidelock and boxlock actions with and without exposed hammers.

Except for the brief Browning Superposed interlude, a high quality American double 410 had not been made in many years. Very recently, the Connecticut Shotgun Mfg. Co. has resurrected the classic A.H. Fox shotgun in greater splendor and workmanship than the original [19]. They will now build small bores including the 28 and 410 bores, not built by the original firm.2

Tony Galazan, the mechanical wizard behind the Connecticut Shotgun Mfg. Co., has designed and is now building a unique over/ under shotgun offered in the 410. David Winks, the former Holland & Holland gunmaking expert, describes it as “brilliant” [20].

Various Actions Used to Build the 410 References

1. Boothroyd, Geoffrey, British Shotguns, 1993, Sand Lake Press, Oregon.

2. Boothroyd, Geoffrey, S.T.C.M., 15 Feb. 1996.

3. Boothroyd, Geoffrey, 1985, The Shotgun, A&L Black, London.

4. Keith, Elmer, Shotguns by Keith, MCMLXVII, Bonzana Books, N.Y.

5. Baker, David, Sporting Gun, March 2002.

6. Gough, Thomas (G. T. Garwood), Shotguns & Cartridges, 1975, Adam & Charles Black, London.

7. Tate, Douglas, Shooting Sportsman, July/August 1996.

8. Greener, W.W. The Gun and Its Development, 9th Ed., 1910, Cassell & Company, Ltd.

9. Boothroyd, Geoffrey, 1986, Shotguns & Gunsmiths, A&L Black, London.

10. McIntosh, Michael and David Trevallion, “Top Fasteners,” Shooting Sportsman, Nov./Dec. 1997.

11. DiGiacobbe, B.H., Shotgun Sports, October 2000.

12. Burrard, Major Sir Gerald, 1934 1st Edition, The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics.

13. Baker, David, Sporting Gun, July 1996.

14. McIntosh, Michael & David Trevallion, Shooting Sportsman, July/August 1996.

15. Personal communication 1991 with McKenzie.

16. Boothroyd, Geoffrey, Guns Review, January 1993.

17. O’Connor, Jack, The Shotgun Book, 1965, Alfred A. Knopf, N.Y.

18. Crudgington, I.M. and D.J. Baker, The British Shotgun, C. & B., Vol. 2, 1989, Ashford, South Hampton.

19. McIntosh, Michael, A.H. Fox, Country Sport Press, 1994, Traverse City, MI.

20.Personal communication 1999.

1 Throughout the 20th century, firing pins have been made of steel with varying mixtures of manganese and carbon for strength without brittleness. More recently, many are made of titanium, which has the strength of steel and the weight of aluminum [11].

2 The 410-bore Fox Model B and Fox Sterlingworth guns were built after Savage Arms acquired the A.H. Fox Co. in 1929. These were relatively inexpensive boxlocks. The Model B 410 was cataloged in 1940.