Читать книгу Poles in Kaisers Army On the Front of the First World War - Ryszard Kaczmarek - Страница 11

The military reform in Prussia was completed by Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, appointed the Head of the Prussian General Staff in 1857, later the author of Prussian victories over Austria in 1866 – essential for the unification of Germany – and France in 1871, after the unification. Due to the fact that the former kingdoms in the south of the German Reich partially retained separate institutions, the German Emperor formally took leadership of four military contingents after 1871: Prussian, Bavarian, Saxon, and Württembergian.¹⁶ However, von Moltke improved the functioning of the German Army everywhere, uniformly commanding from the General Staff. Apart from the radical changes related to the increase in firepower, including both firearms and field artillery, von Moltke especially concentrated on the development of a precise mobilization system that was constantly improved until the outbreak of the First World War. The system based on territorial division and enabled a rapid concentration of military units in particular areas of warfare by the use of railway, the fastest and most modern means of transportation that rapidly developed in the German Empire. The number of railway passengers in Germany increased ←14 | 15→tenfold in 1870–1914.¹⁷ The corps was the basic military unit responsible for mobilization – coordinated by the General Staff – for which it prepared detailed plans and recruited new people. Thanks to these actions, in the case of military conflict, the corps could deliver equipment and firearms to soldiers in line regiments in an organized and quick manner – according to the sequence of actions that was planned with the accuracy of an hour – not to mention the reservists who gradually strengthened the rapidly developing regiments. The delivery of regiments to designated sties based on the “schedule” determined by the staffs. The reform of the General Staff – which began to play the key role since the mid-nineteenth century in the Prussian and later in the German Army – was possible thanks to constant rearrangements of this complicated schedule. It was important not only to determine such a schedule but also to constantly improve and rearrange it due to the changing strength and armament of the army, the relocation of troops, and the development of railway.¹⁸

Logistic problems multiplied with the growing strength of the Prussian Army. The increasing expenses for the army, approved by the German Parliament (Reichstag), resulted also in the growing number of soldiers and officers in active duty: from less than 100 thousand to more than 400 thousand in 1880. The duration of time spent in the military training area increased to eighteen weeks per assignment.¹⁹ The army constantly grew to number almost 700 thousand people the brink of the First World War, after the decisions of the German Parliament.²⁰

However, universal military duty before 1914 never applied to all men. In 1909, only a little more than half of men in military age formed the ranks of regiments, that is, 230 thousand recruits out of 422 thousand available men. The reasons for this state of affairs were not financial but political and ideological. Part of the officer corps was not eager to call up whole year groups as they feared the agitation of German social democrats, whose influence steadily grew among the increasing number of the working class. Even right before the First World War, in the 1913 conscription, the military called up only 60 percent of the available pool. As a result, when 1914 required the mobilization of a multi-million-strong army, 5.4 million of conscripts out of the total of 10.4 million had no ←15 | 16→previous military training. Thus, they required preparation before going to the frontlines.

After the introduction of the new military bill of 1912, the number of reserve officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers on the eve of the Great War amounted to 768 thousand (761 thousand in Germany and 7 thousand in colonies).²¹ At the outbreak of the Great War, the German Army was smaller than the French. The former had 120 thousand officers and 3.7 million non-commissioned officers and soldiers in active duty out of 67.8 million inhabitants, so 6 percent, while the latter’s indicator reached 9.1 percent²²; of course not in absolute values, but proportionally, that is, taking into account the number of inhabitants. 2147 thousand conscripts were sent to the European fronts, 10 thousand to the colonies – 7–8 thousand were recruited directly in the colonies – while the rest were on duty in the German Reich.²³

In the nineteenth century, the German Army became the model of modern organization and logistics thanks to the creation of conditions for the rapid movement of mass military and the most efficient mobilization capability in Europe. The two wars with eminent European powers – Austria and France – tested the efficiency of this war machine. The Battles of Königgrätz and Sedan proved the superiority of Prussian training. It resulted from the perfect preparation of recruits in the regiments, to which they practically belonged nearly through their whole adulthood. The impersonal military gave way to a civic army that based on loyalty to regiment of registry passed from one-year group to the next. The acceptance of military norms and values along with the pride of belonging to a specific Prussian regiment became the experience of several generations of not only officers, as before, but also regular soldiers.²⁴

Poles from the eastern Prussian territories belonged to the Prussian contingent and the following corps: II in Szczecin, V in Poznań, VI in Wrocław, XVII in Gdańsk, and XX in Olsztyn. Many Poles became members of the elite 2nd Guards Infantry Division and the 1st Guards Infantry Division that jointly constituted the Guards Corps. Poles from Westphalia belonged to the following army corps: XI in Kassel and XIV in Karlsruhe.

I will discuss in more detail the VI Army Corps in Wrocław, which comprised the territories of Upper Silesia, mostly inhabited by the Polish-speaking ←16 | 17→community. My discussion will focus not only on the time of mobilization but also the tradition of creating the large units after von Moltke’s reforms, not to mention the way of mobilizing the reserve divisions. The other corps developed similarly at the turn of the twentieth century. The Annex on pages 305 contain information about the deployment and commanders of all German corps, in which Poles constituted the majority during the First World War.

The Wrocław VI Army Corps (VI. Armee-Korps) in 1871 comprised 25 infantry battalions, 8 cavalry squadrons, and 84 cannons. Wilhelm von Tümpling, General of the Cavalry, commanded the VI Army Corps, which then gathered the Lower Silesian 11th Infantry Division and the Upper Silesian 12th Infantry Division. The Corps also included units in military reserve: two units of the Silesian Field Artillery No. 6 (Fuß-Abt. Schlesischen Feld-Artillerie Reg. Nr. 6), Silesian Sapper Battalion No. 6 (Schlesisches Pionier-Bataillon Nr. 6), and Silesian Train Battalion No. 6 (Schlesisches Train-Bataillon Nr. 6).²⁵ During the Great War, the Silesian VI Army Corps was commanded by General of the Infantry Kurt von Pritzelwitz in 1914, General of the Infantry Ernst August Max von Backmeister in 1914–1915, General of the Cavarly Georg von der Marwitz in 1915–1916, General of the Infantry Julius Riemann in 1916–1917, and General of the Artillery Konstanz von Heineccius. In 1871–1914, the corps underwent considerable changes. It still comprised two infantry divisions: the 12th Infantry Division of Upper Silesia with its staff in Nysa, and the 11th Division of Lower Silesia with its staff in Wrocław. The second division gathered: the 21st Infantry Brigade in Świdnica (the 1st Silesian Grenadiers Regiment No. 10 in Świdnica, the 38th Silesian Fusiliers Regiment of Kłodzko), the 22nd Infantry Brigade in Poznań (the 2nd Silesian Grenadiers Regiment No. 11 in Wrocław, the 4th Lower Silesian Infantry Regiment in Wrocław), the 11th Cavalry Brigade in Poznań (the 1st Silesian Life Cuirassiers Regiment No. 6 in Wrocław, the 2nd Silesian Dragoon Regiment No. 8 in Kluczbork, Bierutowo, and Namysłów), the 11th Field Artillery Brigade of Poznań (the 1st Silesian Field Artillery Regiment No. 6 in Wrocław, the 2nd Silesian Field Artillery No. 42 in Świdnica). The following regiments remained in the reserve corps: the 2nd Silesian Fusiliers Battalion No. 6 in Oleśnica, the Machine Gun Division No. 1 in Wrocław, the 56th Silesian Light Artillery Regiment in Nysa and Głogów, the 6th Silesian Sappers Battalion in Nysa, and the 6th Silesian Wagon Fort Division in Wrocław.

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In the second half of the nineteenth century, Poles from Upper Silesia mainly joined the ranks of the 12th Infantry Division in Nysa. It usually functioned as a compact unit. Before 1914, all its regiments conducted joint maneuvers in Upper Silesia: in Łambinowice and on the Prussian-Austrian border. Initially, the draft applied to recruits from all over Silesia, but after the implementation of a detailed mobilization plan, it applied to the ones “only from Upper Silesia.”²⁶ During the war, the division was commanded by major general Johannes von Eben in 1914, lieutenant general Martin Chales de Beaulieu in 1913–1915, lieutenant general Karl Fouquet in 1915–1916, lieutenant general Arnold Lequis in 1916–1918, and major general Georg Pohlmann in 1918.²⁷

Before the outbreak of the First World War, the Upper Silesian division comprised three infantry brigades (the 33rd Infantry Brigade with staff in Gliwice, the 24th Infantry Brigade with staff in Nysa, and the 78th Infantry Brigade with staff in Nysa,) two cavalry brigades (the 12th Cavalry Brigade with staff in Nysa and the 44th Cavalry Brigade with staff in Gliwice,) as well as the 12th Field Artillery Brigade with staff in Nysa. An independent battalion of sappers also quartered in Nysa, where the division’s command resided. Below, I list a detailed structure of the division.

The 23rd Infantry Brigade of Gliwice included the 1st Upper Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 22 (1. Oberschlesisches Infanterie-Regiment “Keith” Nr. 22). It was the oldest Upper Silesian infantry regiment that carefully cultivated its tradition dating back to the early nineteenth century. Its bataillions quartered in Gliwice (staff) and Katowice. The origins of this formation dated back to the Napoleonic Wars; it was established on July 1, 1813, by order of Frederick William III. The reserve regiments (Reserveregimente) then emerged from the small number of line units in order to extend the Prussian army before the final battle with Napoleon I. The 10th Reserve Regiment under the command of Major von Sack formed in Kłodzko from the staffs and subunits of such three battalions. In 1813, it took part in the Battles of Dresden and Leipzig and, after the spring campaign of 1814, on the French border; its soldiers entered Paris in 1815. The same year, it received the name of the 22nd Infantry Regiment by royal order (22. Infanterie-Regiment). During the war with Austria in 1866, the 22nd fought in the Battle of Königgrätz, and a year later its battalion moved to Racibórz, Upper ←18 | 19→Silesia. Afterward, it operated during the war with France in 1870–1871, as well as in the Siege of Paris, and after moving to Baden, it remained in the garrison at Rastatt until 1888. In 1889, the cabinet order of Wilhelm II gave the regiment a new name: the 1st Upper Silesian Infantry Regiment “Keith” No. 22 (1. Oberschlesisches Infanterie-Regiment “Keith” Nr. 22). The name commemorated the field marshal of the Prussian army, James Keith, who died at the Battle of Hochkirch during the Seven Years’ War. In 1890, the regiment moved to Gliwice; or, to be precise, the staff and two battalions moved there, while the third battalion moved to Bytom, and in 1913 to Katowice.²⁸

The 23rd Infantry Brigade of Gliwice also included the 3rd Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 156 (3. Schlesisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 156). The establishment of the regiment resulted from one of the successive reforms that aimed at increasing the number of infantry in the German Army. In 1896, the German Parliament decided to create thirty-three new regiments as a result of the merger of the former half-batallions; they consisted of about 500 soldiers and officers each. The Silesian regiment was created on March 1897, after the increase of the number of units and battalions. Initially, the regiment quartered in Brzeg. Then, its staff and two battalions moved to Bytom, while the third battalion to Tarnowskie Góry.

The 24th Infantry Brigade of Nysa consisted of the 2nd Upper Silesian) Infantry Regiment No. 23 (2. Oberschlesisches Infanterie-Regiment “von Winterfeldt” Nr. 23). It was the second of the two oldest Upper Silesian infantry regiments, also created from a reserve regiment by the 1813 order. It operated in the Napoleonic Wars in the Battles of Dresden and Leipzig and, after the spring campaign of 1814, on the French border; its soldiers entered Paris in 1815. The same year it fought at the Battle of Ligny. In 1849, the Regiment suppressed the revolution in Wrocław during the Spring of Nations. In 1866, it took part in the Battle of Königgrätz and, in 1870, in the Siege of Paris. For its merits, the Regiment received the name “von Winterfeldt,” in honor of Hans Karl von Winterfeldt, a general of the Prussian Army during the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years’ War. Its garrison quartered in Nysa.

Moreover, the 24th Infantry Brigade of Nysa comprised the 3rd Upper Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 62 (3. Oberschlesisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 62). It was established on May 5, 1860, after von Moltke’s military reforms that aimed at extending the Prussian line units. In 1866, during the war with Austria, the Regiment operated in a military operation to eliminate the threat of an offensive ←19 | 20→on Upper Silesia from Galicia. While protecting the border, it fought in the Battle of Oświęcim on June 27. This was its baptism by fire.²⁹ During the Prussian-French War, the Regiment operated during the Siege of Paris and then the occupation of France. Its staff and two battalions quartered in Koźle, while the third battalion in Racibórz.

The 78th Infantry Brigade comprised of the 4th Upper Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 63 (4. Oberschlesisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 63). The regiment was established at the beginning of the 1860s, as a part of the enlargement of the Prussian Army after von Moltke’s reforms. The cabinet order of July 1859 partly extended the military duty of the younger Landwehr’s year groups and the Storm Battalions (Landwehrsturmbataillone), established by its battalions in Nysa, Strzelce Opolskie, and Opole, which received the name of the 23rd Combined Infantry Regiment (23. Kombinierte Infanterie-Regiment). In July 1860, it became the 4th Upper Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 63 and received a flag half a year later.³⁰ The regiment’s staff initially quartered in Nysa. In 1866, its soldiers fought in the war with Austria. During the French campaign, they participated in the Battle of Sedan and the Siege of Paris. In 1900, after the outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion in China, they departed for Asia as part of the German Expeditionary Forces.³¹ The staffs of the regiments and its two battalions quartered in Opole, while the third battalion in Lubliniec. During the First World War, the Regiment received the name of “Charles I” of Austria. After a successful campaign in Italy in October 1917, the German High Command sent a special letter about this matter to the Habsburg at the request and on behalf of Wilhelm II:

Inspirited by the desire to start a new chapter of faithful brotherhood of arms between our armies in these great times, I ask Your Highness to assume – among other positions in my navy and army – the position of commander of the 4th Upper Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 63. The Regiment demonstrated the old brotherhood of arms during the Battles of Isonzo against a treacherous former ally. It supported the offensive and exceeded during the assault of Monte Matajur [a peak in the Julian Alps]. Please allow this brave regiment from now on to fight under the name of Your Imperial and Royal Highness and their epaulettes to bear the initials of Your Highness. I would like to assure you, Your Majesty, that this regiment will continually prove that it deserves this honor.³²

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The epaulettes of soldiers and officers of the regiment indeed bear the letter “K” in the crown.

Furthermore, the 78th Infantry Brigade consisted of the 4th Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 157 (4. Schlesisches Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 157). The regiment was a result of another reform that aimed at increasing the number of the infantry in the German Army and the decision of the German Parliament to create thirty-three new regiments. It comprised delegated soldiers and officers of the following Upper Silesian regiments: 22nd, 23rd, 62nd, and 63rd. In 1907, it received the name of the 4th Silesian Infantry Regiment No. 157. The volunteers from this regiment also participated in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China. Still, the regiment was officially formed as late as in April 1, 1897. Initially, its headquarters were in Nysa and then in Brzeg, where the staff and two battalions quartered, while the third battalion remained in Nysa. Until 1913, together with its original brigade, the regiment belonged to the 11th Infantry Division of Lower Silesia, and it entered the 78th Infantry Brigade after its establishment as the third brigade in the 12th Infantry Division.³³

The 12th Cavalry Brigade comprised the 1st Silesian Hussars Regiment “von Schill” No. 4 (1. Schlesisches Husaren-Regiment “von Schill” Nr. 4). It was one of the oldest Silesian cavalry regiments, established during the First Silesian War in 1741. It participated in the Napoleonic Wars of 1813–1815 – including the Battles of Dresden and Leipzig – and entered Paris in March 1815. It received its name after Ferdinand von Schill, a hero of Prussian resistance against France. The regiment suppressed the Greater Poland uprising of 1848. It participated in the Battle of Königgrätz during the Austrian-Prussian War of 1866, while during the Franco-Prussian War in the Battle of Königgratz and the Siege of Paris. It was stationed in Oława.

Moreover, the 12th Cavalry Brigade consisted of the 2nd Silesian Hussars Regiment “Graf Götzen” No. 6 (2. Schlesisches Husaren-Regiment “Graf Götzen” Nr. 6). Its tradition also dated back to the Napoleonic Wars, when it participated in the Russian campaign. It was created in 1808. The regiment fought in the Battle of Leipzig and in the spring campaign of 1814 at the French border. The regiment suppressed the Greater Poland uprising of 1848. It fought in the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866 and in the Battle of Sedan in 1870. For its merits, the regiment was named “Graf Götzen,” in honor of the Prussian general, Friedrich Wilhelm von Götzen the Elder, an adjutant general of Frederick II during the ←21 | 22→Seven Years’ War. Four squadrons of the regiments and its staff quartered in Głubczyce, while one squadron in Racibórz.

The 44th Cavalry Brigade in Gliwice consisted of the 2nd Silesian Uhlan Regiment “Graf Götzen” No. 2 (Schlesisches Ulanen-Regi- ment “von Katzler” Nr. 2). It was the second oldest regiment in Upper Silesian division. It was already founded in 1745. It operatd in the Napoleonic Wars, including the Battles of Dresden and Leipzig. Later, it took part in the Siege of Erfurt, the seizure of Luxembourg, and the Siege of Paris during the spring campaign of 1814. The regiment fought in the Battle of Ligny during the Hundred Days. Next, “von Katzler” fought in the Battle of Königgrätz in 1866 and in the Battle of Sedan against France in September 1870. The regiment received its name after Nikolaus Andreas von Katzler, a lieutenant general who died during the Seven Years’ War. The regiment’s staff and four squadrons quartered in Gliwice, while one squadron in Pszczyna.

Furthermore, the 44th Cavalry Brigade in Gliwice consisted of the Mounted Rifles Regiment No. 11 (Jäger-Regiment zu Pferde Nr. 11). The regiment originated from the squadrons of other cavalry units and was formally created in October 1913, on the eve of the First World War. Mounted rifles were a new formation in the German Army. In substance, they were responsible for reconnaissance, patrol service, and communication, but they also could serve as mobile infantrymen. The regiment’s staff and its four squadrons quartered in Tarnowskie Góry, while the fifth squadron in Lubliniec.

The 12th Field Artillery Brigade in Nysa comprised the 1st Upper Silesian Field Artillery Regiment “von Clausewitz” no. 21 (1. Oberschlesisches Feldartillerie-Regiment “von Clausewitz” Nr. 21). It originated from the former artillery units. After the experience of the Franco-Prussian War – the Sieges of Strasbourg and Paris and battles alongside infantry – it became clear how important for the infantry’s attack is the support of artillery. In 1872, field artillery (Feldartillerie) – until then supporting infantry regiments in the front line – was separated from the heavy artillery and the siege artillery (Fußartillerie). The Silesian Field Artillery No. 6 first turned into the 6th Field Artillery Brigade and, in 1872, again into the Silesian Field Artillery No. 6 that temporarily consisted of six heavy and two light artillery batteries, divided into two units (Abteilungen). Its staff and one unit quartered in Świdnica, while the second unit in Nysa.³⁴ Each battery included six canons but only four of them had horse-drawn carts, whereas two ←22 | 23→cannons remained in the reserve. At the time, those were heavy six-pounder cannons (9 cm caliber) and light four-pounder cannons (8 cm caliber). Those already were a breech-loading cannons, but only the smaller ones had locks. The reorganization of the regiments occurred in 1874, which is when it received the name of the Upper Silesian Field Artillery Regiment No. 21. Since then, it consisted of three units and eight artillery batteries. At the time, the regiment started to use new explosive material C 73 (tetryl) and new cannons with breech (8.8 cm caliber).³⁵ After William II’s ascension to the throne and for his first birthday – a generally celebrated event in the German Empire – of January 27, 1889, the regiment was named “von Clausewitz” after the most prominent Prussian military theorist. In 1899, four artillery regiments (6th, 42nd, 21st, 7th), that until then belonged to the corpus brigade, constituted new independent brigades assigned to both Silesian divisions. The 12th Artillery Brigade that included the soldiers of the 21st Regiment now belonged to the Upper Silesian Division. In 1901, the regiment received the name of the 1st Upper Silesian Field Artillery Regiment “von Clausewitz” No 21. In 1914, the regiment’s structure comprised staff and the 1st Unit in Nysa (light artillery in three batteries), and the 2nd Unit in Grodków (howitzers in three batteries) with munitions companies supporting each of the units. In 1916, the third unit joined the regiment with three artillery batteries and one more munitions company.³⁶

Furthermore, the 12th Field Artillery Brigade in Nysa consisted of the 2nd Upper Silesian Field Artillery Regiment No. 57 (2. Oberschlesisches Feldartilerie-Regiment Nr. 57). It was created in March 1899. Its armament and structure resembled the armament and structure of the 21st Upper Silesian Field Artillery Regiment. Its staff and the 1st Unit quartered in Prudnik, while the 2nd Unit in Gliwice.

Since the mobilization after the outbreak of the First World War also applied to the reserve corps in the German Army, the VI Reserve Corps (VI. Reserve-Korps) was also created as a compact unit under command of the General of the Infantry Konrad Ernst von Goßler until 1917, and then, until the end of the war, under the General of the Infantry, Kurt von dem Borne.³⁷ It also included two reserve infantry divisions, analogical to their mother divisions: the 11th Infantry Reserve Division and the 12th Infantry Reserve Division At the outbreak of the war, the commander of the 2nd Upper Silesian division became lieutenant general ←23 | 24→Walther Freiherr von Lüttwitz. It comprised the 22nd Infantry Reserve Brigade (22. Reserve-Infanterie-Brigade) under command of major general von Leyser. The brigade consisted of the 23rd Infantry Reserve Regiment of Opole under command of Lieutenant Colonel von Passov and the Infantry Reserve Regiment No. 38 (Reserve-Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 38) with its battalions in Oleśnica and Wrocław. Its commander was Lieutenant Colonel von Rosenberg.

Moreover, the 2nd Upper Silesian division conveyed the 23rd Infantry Reserve Brigade under command of major general Freiherr von Wilimowski that consisted of the Infantry Reserve Regiment No. 22 (Reserve-Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 22) with its battalions in Rybnik, Racibórz, and Koźle and the Infantry Reserve Regiment No. 22 (Reserve-Infanterie-Regiment Nr. 51) in Nysa and Gliwice.

Furthermore, the Upper Silesian division comprised the Field Artillery Reserve Regiment No. 12 in Nysa and Prudnik (Reserve-Feldartillerie-Regiment Nr. 12), which during the war only consisted of two units³⁸; the Uhlan Reserve Regiment No. 4 in Brzeg and Grodków (Reserve-Ulanen-Regiment Nr. 4); and the Sapper Reserve Company of the Sappers Battalion No. 6 in Brzeg (Reserve-Kompanie Pionier-Bataillon Nr. 6).³⁹

The wartime mobilization also applied to Landsturm units responsible for homeland defense, which consisted of older year groups of soldiers no longer in active duty. First, because of the potential Russian threat in 1914, and from guard duty needs in the back lines. No one respected this formation, which is in stark contrast to the later Volkssturm of the Second World War. What best pictures the combat value of Landsturm’s 40- and 50-year-old members is the popular joke about their guard duty in Katowice, at the beginning of the First World War: “The sentry on duty calls a person that approaches him in the darkness: “Halt! Who’s there? Keyword?” The stranger thinks for a second and answers in Silesian Polish, “Oh, darn it [pieronie], I forgot the password!” The guard answers, “If you say ‘darn it’ [pieronie], than you belong to us and may enter.””⁴⁰