Читать книгу Principles of Virology, Volume 2 - Jane Flint, S. Jane Flint - Страница 4

1 Chapter 1Figure 1.1 Conquerors of yellow fever. This painting by Dean Cornwell (1939) d...Figure 1.2 The pace of discovery of new infectious agents in the dawn of virol...Figure 1.3 Consequences of the 1918 influenza pandemic. (A) The 1918–19 influe...Figure 1.4 Deaths caused by the yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia, 1793. T...Figure 1.5 Spread of West Nile virus in the United States. The maps show the s...Figure 1.6 Fruit bat geographic range in Southeast Asia, and prevalence of Nip...Figure 1.7 Ebola outbreak. Health care workers in areas of the Ebola virus out...Figure 1.8 Zika spread in Brazil. (A) In three short years, from 2014 to 2016,...Figure 1.9 Twitter as a tool in viral epidemiology. Between May 1 and December...Figure 1.10 Seasonal variation in disease caused by three human pathogens in t...

2 Chapter 2Figure 2.1 Ectromelia virus infection of mice. Infection begins with a break i...Figure 2.2 The coordinated host response to infection. In healthy individuals,...Figure 2.3 Infection seen as a series of bottlenecks. In the illustrated case,...Figure 2.4 Sites of viral entry into the host. The body is covered with skin, ...Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of the skin. The epidermis consists of a layer of...Figure 2.6 Sites of viral entry in the respiratory tract. (Left) A detailed vi...Figure 2.7 Cilia help to move debris trapped in the mucus of the respiratory t...Figure 2.8 A picture is worth a thousand words. A group of applied mathematici...Figure 2.9 Cellular organization of the small intestine. A simplified view of ...Figure 2.10 Transplacental virus infections. Several viruses, including Zika v...Figure 2.11 Cleavage of influenza virus HA0 by club cell tryptase. Influenza v...Figure 2.12 Polarized release of viruses from cultured epithelial cells visual...Figure 2.13 Entry, dissemination, and shedding of blood-borne viruses. Sho...Figure 2.14 The lymphatic system. Lymphocytes flow from the blood into the lym...Figure 2.15 Generic characteristics of viremia. Passive viremia occurs when th...Figure 2.16 Possible pathways for the spread of infection in nerves. Virus par...Figure 2.17 Outline of the spread of alphaherpesviruses and relationship to di...Figure 2.18 Blood-tissue junction in a capillary, venule, and sinusoid. (L...Figure 2.19 How viruses gain access to the liver. Two layers of hepatocytes ar...Figure 2.20 How viruses travel from blood to tissues with basement membranes. ...Figure 2.21 How viruses gain access to the central nervous system. (Left) A su...Figure 2.22 Mat herpes. An example of a herpesvirus infection on the arms of a...

3 Chapter 3Figure 3.1 Integration of intrinsic defense with the innate and adaptive immun...Figure 3.2 Pattern recognition receptors. The four types of pattern recognitio...Figure 3.3 Recognition of viruses by Toll-like receptors in mammalian cells. T...Figure 3.4 Divergence and convergence of signaling pathways in response to a d...Figure 3.5 Detection of intracellular PAMPs by RIG-I. After binding their nucl...Figure 3.6 The cGAS/STING axis in innate immunity. Double-stranded DNA in the ...Figure 3.7 Inhibition of cytoplasmic pattern recognition receptors by selected...Figure 3.8 Apoptosis: programmed cell death. (A) Apoptosis is de fined by seve...Figure 3.9 Pathways to apoptosis. (A) The extrinsic death receptors and their ...Figure 3.10 Viral activators and suppressors of apoptosis. Shown are several v...Figure 3.11 Induction of necroptosis pathways. Necroptosis is initiated by the...Figure 3.12 Autophagy. (A) Viral proteins can either induce (green arrows) or ...Figure 3.13 Epigenetic silencing of DNA. Histone acetylation and deacetylation...Figure 3.14 Interferon increases the number and size of PML bodies. Human fore...Figure 3.15 Tetherin prevents budding of enveloped viruses. Tetherin traps vir...Figure 3.16 Systemic effects of cytokines in inflammation. A localized viral i...Figure 3.17 Interferon receptors. Type I IFNs interact with the heterodimeric ...Figure 3.18 Type I interferon synthesis, secretion, receptor binding, and sign...Figure 3.19 Common signal transduction pathways for IFN-α/β and IL-6....Figure 3.20 The interferon-induced firebreak that restricts viral spread beyon...Figure 3.21 Suppressors of cytokine signaling. In unstimulated cells, SOCS gen...Figure 3.22 Virus-mediated modulation of interferon production and action. Vir...Figure 3.23 Steps in immune cell extravasation into tissues, and the role of c...Figure 3.24 Activation and regulation of the complement system. The complement...Figure 3.25 NK cells distinguish normal, healthy target cells by a two-recepto...Figure 3.26 Virus-encoded mechanisms for modulation of NK-cell activity. (Left...Figure 3.27 Neutrophils produce a “net” to capture extracellular pathogens....Figure 3.28 Critical events during acute virus infection. As discussed in the ...

4 Chapter 4Figure 4.1 Development of leukocytes from a common stem cell precursor. All ce...Figure 4.2 The humoral and cell-mediated branches of the adaptive immune syst...Figure 4.3 Simplified representations of CD4 and CD8 coreceptor molecules. Th...Figure 4.4 Differentiation of T helper subsets. T-cell subset differentiation...Figure 4.5 Interleukin-12 skews the T-cell response toward a T_h1 profile. Enga...Figure 4.6 Expansion and contraction of the T-cell response. Soon after infect...Figure 4.7 Generation of receptor diversity. The T- and B-cell receptor allele...Figure 4.8 Dendritic cells provide cytokine signals and packets of protein inf...Figure 4.9 The inflammasome. The best-characterized inflammasome is the NLRP3...Figure 4.10 Inflammation provides integration and synergy with the main compon...Figure 4.11 Lymph node anatomy. (A) Lymph from extracellular spaces in tissue...Figure 4.12 Components of the human lymphatic and mucosal immune systems. (A) Figure 4.13 T-cell surface molecules and ligands. (A) Interaction of a CD4 co...Figure 4.14 Endogenous antigen processing: the pathway for MHC class I peptid...Figure 4.15 Exogenous antigen processing in the antigen-presenting cell: the ...Figure 4.16 The immunological synapse. (A–D) The morphological character...Figure 4.17 CTL lysis. Granzymes induce target cell apoptosis in association ...Figure 4.18 A rogues’ gallery of virus-induced rashes and poxes. Photo ...Figure 4.19 Activation of B cells to produce antibodies. When antigen binds a...Figure 4.20 The structure and properties of an antibody molecule. (A) A schem...Figure 4.21 The specificity, self-limitation, and memory of the antibody resp...Figure 4.22 Secretory antibody, IgA, is critical for antiviral defense at muc...Figure 4.23 How antibodies neutralize virus particles. Possible mechanisms of...Figure 4.24 Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity. An example of ADCC...Figure 4.25 Generation of memory-T-cell diversity. The induction and contract...

5 Chapter 5Figure 5.1 General patterns of infection. As originally defined by Fenner and ...Figure 5.2 The course of a typical acute infection. Relative virus reproductio...Figure 5.3 Viral proteins block cell surface MHC class I antigen presentation. Figure 5.4 Persistent infection with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus. Mice ...Figure 5.5 Development of hepatocellular carcinoma subsequent to hepatitis C v...Figure 5.6 Worldwide burden of measles virus. (A) The number of annual cases o...Figure 5.7 Infection by measles virus. Course of clinical measles infection an...Figure 5.8 Herpes simplex virus primary infection of sensory and sympathetic g...Figure 5.9 Neurons harboring latent herpes simplex virus often contain hundred...Figure 5.10 Epstein-Barr virus primary and persistent infection. (Left) Primar...Figure 5.11 Two methods for measuring viral virulence. (A) Measurement of surv...Figure 5.12 Attenuation of viral virulence by a point mutation. Mice were inoc...Figure 5.13 Different types of virulence genes. Examples of virulence genes th...Figure 5.14 Summary of PKR-mediated protein shutoff and herpes simplex virus 1...Figure 5.15 Selected viruses that result in immunopathology. The virus types t...Figure 5.16 Deposition of immune complexes in the kidneys, leading to glomerul...Figure 5.17 Model of antibody-dependent enhancement of dengue infection. Monoc...Figure 5.18 Original antigenic sin. When a strong response is made to a viral ...Figure 5.19 Infectious cycle of mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV). This retrovi...Figure 5.20 Measles virus infection of antigen-presenting cells blocks IL-12 p...Figure 5.21 Hendra virus infection restricts nuclear localization of activated...

6 Chapter 6Figure 6.1 Stages in the establishment of a cell culture. (A) Mouse or other r...Figure 6.2 Foci formed by avian cells transformed with two strains of Rous sarco...Figure 6.3 The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal transduction pathw...Figure 6.4 Some signaling pathways that promote increases in cell size and mass....Figure 6.5 The phases of a eukaryotic cell cycle. The most obvious phase morph...Figure 6.6 The mammalian cyclin-CDK cell cycle engine. (A) The phases of the c...Figure 6.7 A genetic paradigm for cancer. The pace of the cell cycle can be mo...Figure 6.8 Genome maps of some avian and mammalian transducing retroviruses. T...Figure 6.9 Possible mechanisms for oncogene capture by retroviruses. Capture o...Figure 6.10 DNA virus transforming proteins interact with multiple cellular prot...Figure 6.11 The two mechanistic classes of viral oncogene products. Viral tran...Figure 6.12 Organization and regulation of the c-SRC tyrosine kinase. (A) The ...Figure 6.13 Regulation of cell proliferation and adhesion by SRC. Both c-SRC a...Figure 6.14 Model of paracrine oncogenesis by human herpesvirus 8 gene products....Figure 6.15 Insertional activation of c-myc by avian leukosis viruses. In avia...Figure 6.16 Mechanisms for insertional activation by non-transducing oncogenic r...Figure 6.17 Constitutive signaling by Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein...Figure 6.18 Polyomavirus mT protein, a virus-specific adapter. (A) The mouse p...Figure 6.19 Inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A by simian virus 40 small T anti...Figure 6.20 Passage through the restriction point in mammalian cells. (A) Mito...Figure 6.21 Interactions among viral proteins and the tumor suppressor RB. (A) Figure 6.22 Inactivation of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors by viral proteins...Figure 6.23 Signaling pathways that facilitate cell survival. Activation of RA...Figure 6.24 Regulation of the stability and activity of the p53 protein. Under...Figure 6.25 Stabilization of p53 by viral transforming proteins that bind to RB....Figure 6.26 Inactivation of the p53 protein by adenoviral, papillomaviral, and p...Figure 6.27 Production and organization of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type ...Figure 6.28 Cancer hallmarks induced by proteins of viruses associated with huma...

7 Chapter 7Figure 7.1 Profiles of successful vaccination campaigns. The number of reporte...Figure 7.2 Irrational fears of the effects of vaccines. Some believed that vac...Figure 7.3 Decline in worldwide measles deaths due to vaccination. Estimated w...Figure 7.4 Passive transfer of antibody from mother to infant. The fraction of...Figure 7.5 Antibody and effector T cells are the basis of protective immunity. ...Figure 7.6 Vaccine thermoses. Development of chambers containing a novel coola...Figure 7.7 How to make vaccines. The basic strategies for vaccine development,...Figure 7.8 Annual timeline for creating an influenza virus vaccine in the United...Figure 7.9 Comparison of the predicted immune responses to inactivated and atten...Figure 7.10 Viruses specific for humans may become attenuated by passage in nonh...Figure 7.11 Replication-competent, attenuated Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine. (...

8 Chapter 8Figure 8.1 Current arsenal of antiviral drugs. (A) Antiviral drugs approved fr...Figure 8.2 Knowledge of viral reproduction cycles identifies general targets for...Figure 8.3 Path of drug discovery. The flow of information and action followed...Figure 8.4 Mechanism-based screen for inhibitors of a viral protease. The subs...Figure 8.5 Cell-based screen for a viral protease inhibitor. This cell-based a...Figure 8.6 Combinatorial chemistry and the building-block approach to chemical l...Figure 8.7 Structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 protease with th...Figure 8.8 A descending staircase of drug discovery. Many compounds must be te...Figure 8.9 Valacyclovir (Valtrex), an l-valyl ester derivative of acyclovir with...Figure 8.10 Viral load depends on the dose of antiviral drug. This relationshi...Figure 8.11 Maraviroc, an inhibitor of attachment of human immunodeficiency viru...Figure 8.12 Interaction of amantadine with the transmembrane domain of the influ...Figure 8.13 Many well-known antiviral compounds are nucleoside and nucleotide an...Figure 8.14 Chain termination by antiviral nucleos(t)ide analogs. (A) Acyclovi...Figure 8.15 The hepatitis C virus polyprotein is cleaved by several proteases. ...Figure 8.16 The prodrug sofosbuvir: structure and activation. The success of t...Figure 8.17 Structure of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcripta...Figure 8.18 Two nonnucleoside/nucleotide antiviral compounds. (A) Foscarnet is...Figure 8.19 Strand transfer inhibitors of the human immunodeficiency virus integ...Figure 8.20 Comparison of one natural cleavage site for the human immunodeficien...Figure 8.21 Structure of the hepatitis C virus protease NS3/4A and with a bound ...Figure 8.22 Steps in the reproduction of human immunodeficiency virus and hepati...Figure 8.23 Decreasing length of treatment regimens for infection with hepatitis...Figure 8.24 Anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) therapy saves millions of li...

9 Chapter 9Figure 9.1 “Superspreader” phages of Escherichia coli. These superspreader pha...Figure 9.2 Application of purified bacteriophage lysins to Gram-positive bacteri...Figure 9.3 Sites of cleavage of the peptidoglycans in bacterial cell walls by ph...Figure 9.4 Properties of cancer cells that can facilitate reproduction of oncoly...Figure 9.5 Clinical trials for gene therapy, 1989 to 2018. The number of clini...Figure 9.6 Retrovirus vectors. Schematics of the proviral genomes of murine le...Figure 9.7 Structures of the T-cell receptor (TCR) and chimeric antigen receptor...Figure 9.8 CAR T cells and cytokine release syndrome. Destruction of tumor cel...Figure 9.9 Formation of episomal vector DNA. The genomes of AAV vectors enter ...Figure 9.10 Dual adenovirus-associated virus vectors to deliver large coding seq...Figure 9.11 Introduction of AAV vector particles into the eye. AAV vectors in ...Figure 9.12 Self-complementary AAV vectors. In these vectors, the complementar...Figure 9.13 Adenovirus vectors. High-capacity adenovirus “gutless” vectors con...Figure 9.14 Poxvirus vectors . To produce recombinant poxviruses, the transgene...Figure 9.15 Adenovirus-associated virus vectors. (A) Map of the genome of wild...Figure 9.16 Genome and mRNAs of vesicular stomatitis virus. (A) Genome organiz...Figure 9.17 Yellow fever virus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of flav...Figure 9.18 Alphavirus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of alphaviruses...Figure 9.19 Newcastle disease virus vaccine vector. (A) Genome organization of...

10 Chapter 10Figure 10.1 Relationship between mutation rate and genome size and nature. Mut...Figure 10.2 Viral quasispecies, population size, bottlenecks, and fitness. Gen...Figure 10.3. Error threshold of an RNA virus. Poliovirus-infected cells were u...Figure 10.4 Muller’s ratchet turns in only one direction. Mutations occur and ...Figure 10.5 Appearance and transmission of distinct serotypes of influenza A vir...Figure 10.6 Origin of life from an RNA world. Multiple lines of scientific evi...Figure 10.7 General scheme of RNA virus evolution based on phylogenomic analyses...Figure 10.8 Phylogeny of reverse transcriptases in retroviruses and pararetrovir...Figure 10.9 Proposed evolution of eukaryotic viruses with single–stranded DNA ge...Figure 10.10. Evolution of eukaryotic viruses with double–stranded DNA genomes ...Figure 10.11 Genetic maps of selected (–) strand RNA viral genomes. Maps of th...Figure 10.12 The genomic and epidemiological dynamics of human influenza A virus...Figure 10.13 RNA virus genomes and evolution. Organization of (+) strand RNA g...Figure 10.14 Host-virus arms race and functional consequences . Schematic repre...Figure 10.15 Integration of nonretroviral sequences into vertebrate genomes. (...

11 Chapter 11Figure 11.1 Ancestral origins of human pathogens. Human viruses from 31 genera...Figure 11.2 Emerging viruses in the popular press. Cover of the book Fever!, w...Figure 11.3 Examples of emerging viruses and the factors that led to their emerg...Figure 11.4 General categories of interactions between hosts and viruses. Four...Figure 11.5 Examples of stable and dead-end host-virus relationships. The illu...Figure 11.6 Stable and dead-end relationships in the reproduction cycle of tick-...Figure 11.7 World population growth over the last 2 millennia . (A) The world p...Figure 11.8 Ecological and anthropogenic activities that promote virus emergence...Figure 11.9 Poliovirus in the early 20th century . (A) The emergence of paralyt...Figure 11.10 The transferrin receptor mediates canine and feline parvovirus host...Figure 11.11 Interspecies transmission of influenza viruses. Nearly all influe...Figure 11.12 Major developments in methods for virus discovery drive the identif...

12 Chapter 12Figure 12.1 Estimated number of people living with HIV-1 worldwide, 2018. Data...Figure 12.2 Evolution of primate lentiviruses. (A) Zoonotic transmission of pr...Figure 12.3 Organization of HIV-1 (A) and HIV-2 proviral DNA (B). The colored ...Figure 12.4 Mechanisms of Tat and Rev function in the HIV-1 reproduction cycle...Figure 12.5 Adapter functions of HIV-1 accessory proteins. The major targets (...Figure 12.6 Mechanism of action of APOBEC3G and degradation by Vif. (Top left)...Figure 12.7 Tetherin traps virions on the cell surface. (A) HIV-1 virus partic...Figure 12.8 HIV-1 CA lattice recognition by TRIM5α. (A) Schematic depicti...Figure 12.9 HIV-1 envelope and receptors. (A) Structure of gp120 trimer (modif...Figure 12.10 HIV-1 dissemination in the body. The first cells productively inf...Figure 12.11 Modes of transmission vary among geographical locations. Distribu...Figure 12.12 Progression of HIV-1 infection. Representative changes in HIV-1 v...Figure 12.13 Effects of HIV-1 infection on the intestinal mucosa. The intestin...Figure 12.14 Effects of HIV-1 infection on lymphoid tissue. (Top) Changes in l...Figure 12.15 Comparison of HIV-1 envelope diversity to that of influenza. Evol...Figure 12.16 Summary of kinetics of HIV-1 reproduction in the body. The percen...Figure 12.17 Clonal expansion of latently infected, central memory CD4+ T cell...Figure 12.18 Antibody evolution against the HIV-1 envelope. (A) Representative...Figure 12.19 Kaposi’s sarcoma in a young man infected with HIV-1. The di...Figure 12.20 Induction of cancers in HIV-1-infected individuals. Infection of ...Figure 12.21 The multifaceted approach to prevention of infection with HIV-1. ...

13 Chapter 13Figure 13.1 Structure of two types of viroid. (A) Model of the potato spindle ...Figure 13.2 Replication of two different types of viroid in plants. (Top) Repl...Figure 13.3 Vertical and horizontal transmission of viroids in plants via pollen...Figure 13.4 Properties of three classes of satellite RNAs. Schematic of the RN...Figure 13.5 Replication of satellite RNA. Satellite RNA enters the plant cell ...Figure 13.6 Genome and virus particle of hepatitis delta virus. (A) Schematic ...Figure 13.7 Three epidemics of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. The graphs show the ...Figure 13.8 The conversion of nonpathogenic, α–helix–rich PrPC protein to the β–...Figure 13.9 Three mechanisms for the development of human transmissible spongifo...Figure 13.10 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle and variant Creutzfeldt–...Figure 13.11 Chronic wasting disease in North America. Distribution of cases o...

14 AppendixFigure 1Figure 2Figure 3Figure 4Figure 5Figure 6Figure 7Figure 8Figure 9Figure 10Figure 11Figure 12Figure 13Figure 14Figure 15Figure 16Figure 17Figure 18Figure 19Figure 20Figure 21Figure 22Figure 23Figure 24Figure 25Figure 26Figure 27Figure 28Figure 29