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Introduction

Islam: Its leaders and their accomplishments

Dear reader: In this book you will be introduced to hundreds of Islamic leaders, their biographies and accomplishments, since the days of the Prophet Muhammad to the present. They are presented in alphabetical order, not in order of importance nor chronologically.

In less than a century after Muhammad’s death Islam swept through Asia, Africa and Europe, dominating an area larger than that of the Roman Empire at its peak. Today, one in 5 people on the face of this earth is a Muslim. A total of 1.6 billion people; the second largest religion in the world and the fastest-growing.

For a period of 400 years, from the Eighth to the Twelfth Century, the achievements of this synthesized culture were unsurpassed. In fact, much of the science and literature of the European Renaissance was inspired by Islamic models. I Urge everyone to learn about it.

Islam (=Submission): Is the monotheistic religion articulated by the Qur’an, a text considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Arabic: Allāh), and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of Hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.

God (Allah): Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and the purpose of existence is to worship God. Muslims also believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed at many times and places before, including through Abraham, Moses and Jesus, whom they consider prophets. They maintain that previous messages and revelations have been partially changed or corrupted over time, but consider the Qur’an to be both the unaltered and the final revelation of God.

Islam’s most fundamental concept is a rigorous monotheism, called Tawhid. God is described in chapter 112 of the Qur’an as: “Say: He is God, the One and Only; God, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, not is He begotten; and there is none like unto Him.” (Qur’an 112:1-4) Muslims repudiate the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, comparing it to polytheism, but accept Jesus as a prophet. In Islam, God is beyond all comprehension and Muslims are not expected to visualize God.

Muslims believe that creation of everything in the universe is brought into by God’s sheer command “‘Be’ and so it is.” and that the purpose of existence is to worship God. He is viewed as a personal God who responds whenever a person in need or distress calls Him. There are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God who states “We are nearer to him than (his) jugular vein” Allāh is the term with no plural or gender used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews meaning the one God.

Holy Qur’an: It is divided into 114 suras, or chapters, which combined contain 6,236 āyāt, or verses. Muslim jurists consult the Hadith, or the written record of Prophet Muhammad’s life, to both supplement the Qur’an and assist with its interpretation. The science of Qur’anic commentary and exegesis is known as Tafsir. To Muslims, the Qur’an is perfect only as revealed in the original Arabic; translations are necessarily deficient because of language difference, the fallibility of translators, and the impossibility of preserving the original’s inspired style.

Predestination: In accordance with the Islamic belief in predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa’l-qadar), God has full knowledge and control over all that occurs. For Muslims, everything in the world that occurs, good or evil, has been preordained and nothing can happen unless permitted by God. According to Muslim theologians, although events are pre-ordained, man possesses FREE WILL in that he has the faculty to choose between right and wrong, and is thus responsible for his actions.

Five Pillars of Islam

The Pillars of Islam (Arkan al-Islam; also Arkan ad-din, “pillars of religion”) are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory of all believers. The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) Shahadah (Creed), (2) daily prayers (Salat), (3) Almsgiving (Zakah), (4) Fasting during Ramadan (Sawm), and (5) Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The Shi’a and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.

1. Testimony (Shahadah) The Shahadah, which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: “ ‘ashadu ‘al-lā ilah illā-llāhu wa ‘ashadu ‘anna Muhammadan rasūlu-llāh”, or “I testify there are no deities other than God alone and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God.” Muslims must repeat the Shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.

2. Prayer (Salah) Ritual prayers, called alāh or alāt, must be performed five times a day. Salah is intended to focus the mind on God, and is seen as a personal communication with Him that expresses gratitude and worship. Salah is compulsory but flexibility in the specifics is allowed depending on circumstances. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language, and consist of verses from the Qur’an.

• Mosque (Masjid) A mosque is in place of worship is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name, Masjid. The word Mosque in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated to Islamic worship. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also important to the Muslim community as a place to meet and study. Shi’a Islam permits combining prayers in succession.

3. Fasting (Sawm of Ramadan) Fasting, from food, drink and sex must be performed from dawn to dusk during the month of Ramadhan. The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God, and during it Muslims should express their gratitude for and dependence on Him, atone for their past sins, and think of the needy. But missed fasts usually must be made up quickly. The fasting ends daily at sun-down and continues for 30 days.

4. Alms-giving (Zakat and Sadaqah) “Zakat” is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also to assist the spread of Islam. It is considered a religious obligation (as opposed to voluntary charity) that the well-off owe to the needy because their wealth is seen as a “trust from God’s bounty”. The Qur’an and the Hadith also suggest a Muslim give even more as an act of voluntary alms-giving (Sadaqah).

5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) The pilgrimage, called the Hajj during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime. Rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, touching the black stone if possible, walking or running seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, and symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina.

Jihad and the Military: Jihad means “to strive or struggle” (in the way of God) and is considered the “Sixth Pillar of Islam” by a minority of Sunni Muslim authorities. Jihad, in its broadest sense, is classically defined as “exerting one’s utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation. Jihad, when used without any qualifier, is understood in its military aspect. Jihad also refers to one’s striving to attain religious and moral perfection. Some Muslim authorities, especially among the Shi’a and Sufis, distinguish between the “greater jihad”, which pertains to spiritual self-perfection, and the “lesser jihad”, defined as warfare.

Within Islamic jurisprudence, jihad is usually taken to mean military exertion against non-Muslim combatants in the defense or expansion of the Ummah. Others have argued that the goal of Jihad is global conquest. Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states that oppress Muslims or hamper proselytizing efforts.

Under most circumstances and for most Muslims, jihad is a collective duty (Fard Kifaya): Its performance by some individuals exempts the others. For most Shi’as, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi’s occultation in 868 AD.

Muhammad (610-632): Muhammad (570–June 8, 632) was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur’an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets.

For the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, Muhammad started receiving revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur’an, was memorized and recorded by his companions. During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijah (“emigration”) to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. By 630 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 63) he untied the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

Rise of the caliphate and civil war (632–750):

With Muhammad’s death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad’s companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the First Caliph.

• The Rashidun (Rightly-Guided Caliphs): Abu Bakr’s death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar ibn al-Khattab as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first 4 caliphs are known as al-khulafa’ ar-rāshidūn (“Rightly Guided Caliphs”). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the “First Fitna”), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu’awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.

Islamic Accomplishments:

Islamic civilization flourished in what is sometimes referred to as the “Islamic Golden Age”. Public hospitals established during this time, are considered “the first hospitals” in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine. The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world’s older degree-granting university. An important pioneer in this, Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the “world’s first true scientist.” Discoveries include gathering the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions and Al-Jahiz’s proposal of the theory of natural selection. Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).

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