Читать книгу Complete Artist’s Manual: The Definitive Guide to Materials and Techniques for Painting and Drawing - Simon Jennings - Страница 8
ОглавлениеAnything that makes a mark can be used as a drawing tool, but over the years the versatility of certain materials – especially pencil, pastel, charcoal and ink – has made them enduringly popular among artists of all abilities. No one drawing medium is intrinsically superior to another. One artist may enjoy the broad handling that is possible with charcoal or soft pastel, while another may prefer the control and precision of a harder point, such as pencil. The best course is to experiment with different materials and techniques until you discover which ones allow you to express your artistic vision most fully.
| DRAWING PAPERS | No matter what your chosen medium, the paper you draw upon plays an important role in the success of the finished work. |
Cartridge paper
Cartridge paper is a good general-purpose drawing paper. Poor-quality paper is lightweight, with little or no sizing, and tends to yellow with age; heavier cartridge paper is more versatile and is likely to be acid-free.
The surface of cartridge paper varies between brands. It is usually fairly smooth, but with a fine-grained texture. Its colour is variable, too, ranging from a bright white to a mellow cream.
Bristol paper
Bristol paper, or Bristol board, is made from two or more layers of paper bonded together to make a thick sheet. It has a smooth surface which is ideal for fine line drawing, and is also perfect for pen-and-ink work.
Japanese papers
Michael Hyam uses Japanese paper for many of his preparatory portrait studies. The thin, absorbent texture helps him to achieve great sensitivity of line and wash tone.
Michael Hyam
Study of Bernadette Ink on Japanese paper 25 × 17.5cm (10 × 7in)
Specialist paper shops offer a range of Japanese handmade rice papers which are suitable for drawing, watercolour and gouache techniques. These papers are very thin and delicate, with some unusual surface patterns. Japanese papers are very absorbent; they tend to soak up ink or paint, creating hazy, soft-edged shapes of a delicate and elegant nature.
Indian papers
Handmade Indian papers are more robust than Japanese papers, with a surface similar to rough watercolour paper. They are inexpensive and come in a range of tints as well as white and cream. They make an excellent support for soft drawing media such as charcoal, and for wash drawings.
Texture
The texture, or ‘tooth’, of the paper has a direct influence on the character and appearance of the drawn marks. An uncoated, unpressed paper, such as Ingres, has plenty of natural tooth to bite and hold powdery drawing media such as charcoal, chalk and pastel. Rough textures are also suited to bold work, as they emphasize the drawn marks and become part of the drawing.
For fine pencil work and pen-and-ink drawing, a smooth surface is preferred; pen nibs can snag on a rough surface and the ink will spread, preventing clean lines.
Colour
The choice of colour and tone can make a positive contribution to the picture when using coloured drawing materials such as pastel and coloured pencil. Toned papers provide a good middle ground from which to work up to the lights and down to the darks.
Sketchbooks
Naomi Russell
Sketchbook Ink on paper 15 × 10cm (6 × 4in)
Sketchbooks with a spiral binding can be held in one hand while drawing; some have tear-off, perforated sheets, while others come in book form so you can work right across the spread. A small sketchbook, about 15 × 10cm (6 × 4in), fits conveniently into a pocket and can be taken out when inspiration strikes. A larger book, though bulkier, offers more scope for large-scale studies, such as landscapes.
Making paper by hand
Handmade papers are produced by pulping cotton fibres and sizing agents in a vat of water. The paper-maker places a wooden frame, or deckle, over a flat screen made of wire mesh; this is lowered into the pulp and lifted out horizontally. Water drains out through the holes in the wire screen, leaving the fibres in the pulp deposited as a flat sheet on the mesh surface. The deckle is then removed; fibres trapped under the frame produce the ‘deckle edge’, a feature of most handmade paper. Each wet sheet is transferred onto a piece of woollen felt, and when a number of sheets have been sandwiched into a ‘post’ they are pressed to remove excess water. The sheets are then laid out on screens to dry (some makers use the traditional method of drying over ropes). This is known as loft drying, and results in paper with better dimensional stability than machine-made papers because humidity is released at a slower rate.
Weight
Heavy papers made of 100 per cent cotton are preferred for permanent work, as they are sturdy and can take a lot of working and erasing without damage. They are also less prone to wrinkling when using ink and watercolour washes. Cheaper woodpulp and lightweight papers, some of which are now made from eco-friendly, recycled paper, are fine for sketches and practice work.
Supports and media
These drawings on different types of paper demonstrate the importance of the support.
Kay Gallwey
Mr Bill Charcoal, chalk and wash on paper 12.5 × 20cm (5 × 8in)
In Kay Gallwey’s lively sketch, beige Ingres paper provides a soft mid-tone which shows through the drawn marks, tying them together.
Naomi Russell
Little Red Rooster Oil pastel and gold ink on tissue paper 39 × 49cm (15½ × 19½in)
Naomi Russell used coloured tissue paper, crumpled and then smoothed out, for this charming study.
Sarah Donaldson
Still Life with Pumpkins Watercolour on Indian paper 40 × 28.5cm (16 × 11½in)
The rough surface of handmade Indian paper imparts an attractive texture to watercolour washes in Sarah Donaldson’s still life.
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| PENCILS | Equally capable of producing a quick sketch or a finely worked drawing, the pencil is the most immediate, versatile and sensitive of the drawing media. It can be used, on one hand, for great subtlety and delicacy, and, on the other, for striking boldness and vigour; you can produce a soft, velvety quality or a crisp sharpness. One of the pencil’s most attractive characteristics is the ease with which line and tone can be combined in one drawing. |
How pencils are made
In graphite, or ‘lead’ pencils, natural graphite is reduced to a powder and blended with clay in exact proportions, then kneaded into a stiff paste. To make the leads, the paste is compressed and extruded into thin strips, which are dried before being fired in a kiln. After firing, the leads are impregnated with waxes to ensure that they draw smoothly. They are then encased in shafts of cedarwood which are finished with one or more coats of paint.
Graphite pencils
Drawing pencils come in a range of grades, from ‘H’ for hard to ‘B’ for soft. The hardness of the lead is determined by the relative proportions of graphite and clay used: the more graphite, the softer the pencil. Typically, hard pencils range from 9H (the hardest) to H, and soft pencils range from 9B (the softest) to B. Grades HB and F are midway between the two.
A very soft lead will produce rich, black marks, and is an excellent choice for rapid sketches and expressive line-and-tone drawings, especially on textured paper. Hard leads make grey, rather than black marks. They are suitable for precise lines and details because they can be sharpened to a fine point. Although a single pencil of grade HB or 2B gives you considerable scope for expression, many artists use several grades of pencil in one piece of work, creating a rich interplay of line and tone.
Graphite sticks
These are made of high-grade compressed and bonded graphite formed into thick, chunky sticks. They glide smoothly across the surface of the paper, lending themselves to bold and expressive drawing, and to large-scale work. The marks can be varied by using the point, the flattened edge of the point, or the length of the stick.
Linear marks
Valerie Wiffen
Portrait I
Graphite pencil on paper
12.5 × 12.5cm (5 × 5in)
The weight, quality and nuance of a pencil line can be varied and controlled by the grade of pencil chosen, its sharpness, the degree of pressure applied, and the texture of the paper surface. A soft graphite lead gives considerable control over the tone and thickness of a line, which may be graded to describe the contours of a form and the play of light.
Shading
Valerie Wiffen
Portrait II
Graphite pencil on paper
12.5 × 12.5cm (5 × 5in)
Continuous gradations of tone can be created by shading with soft pencils. These areas are first drawn in broadly, using the edge of the lead, working from the lightest to the darkest tones or vice versa. The marks are then carefully blended together using a paper stump, as here, the fingers, or an eraser.
Hatching and crosshatching
Valerie Wiffen
Model and artist
Graphite pencil on paper
21 × 14.5cm (8½ × 5¾in)
Areas of tone can be built up with hatching – roughly parallel lines drawn close together. These can be straight and mechanical or free and sketchy. Altering the direction of the lines describes shape and form. In crosshatching, lines are crisscrossed on top of one another to create a fine mesh of tone. The lines may run in any direction: vertical, horizontal and diagonal. The density of tone can be varied, as is demonstrated right: the closer the lines, the blacker the pencil used, and the more pressure applied, the deeper the tone. Build up hatched and crosshatched lines gradually; too much deepening of tone early on can make the finished drawing dark and heavy.
Drawing with an eraser
Pauline Jackson
Sneakers
Graphite pencil on paper
34 × 25cm (13½ × 10in)
Erasers can also be used as drawing instruments. In this lively study, line and areas of tone were laid on the paper with a soft pencil, then drawn into and modified with a kneaded putty eraser. This is a form of ‘negative’ drawing, in which the image emerges gradually from dark to light.
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| COLOURED PENCILS |
| Coloured pencils are made from a mixture of pigment, clay and filler, bound together with gum. The coloured sticks are soaked in wax, which gives them their smooth-drawing propert ies, before being pressed into rods and encased in wood. Since David Hockney set a precedent in the 1960s with his series of coloured pencil drawings, this medium has become increasingly popular with fine artists. |
Choice and variety
Of late, there has been an enormous increase in the variety of coloured pencils available on the market. Not only has the range of colours been vastly expanded, but the colours themselves are now much more consistently lightfast than previously. You can also obtain watercolour pencils which allow you to dissolve or partially dissolve the colours on the paper with water.
Clean, quick and portable, coloured pencils are very useful sketching and drawing tools. They allow you to work with the accuracy of pencil while involving colour; they are soft enough to allow delicate shading, and they can be sharpened to a point for controlled lines.
Buying coloured pencils
Coloured pencils are available individually or in sumptuous-looking sets with dozens of colours. Brands vary considerably in the range of available tones and in the quality and proportion of pigments, binders, clays and waxes they contain. Some brands have hard, waxy ‘leads’ that can be sharpened to a long, fine point; others are soft and crumbly, producing a broader, more grainy mark.
Fine or broad
Most pencils have a colour core 3.5mm (3/8in) in diameter, which is particularly suitable for finely detailed drawings. Some ranges also carry pencils with a 4mm (5/32in) diameter colour strip, which allows for broad strokes and strong lines. As with ordinary lead pencils, they can be obtained in round or hexagonal wooden shafts.
Buy the best
For fine art work, look for the best quality pencils. They should have strong, lightfast and rich colours that come out uniformly and vividly, with no feeling of grittiness.
Optical colour mixing
You can use hatching and crosshatching techniques to create colours and tones. Just lay lines of different colours side-by-side, or overlay lines at right angles to one another to create the illusion of a third colour.
Toothed paper
Coloured pencil drawings are characterized by a certain delicacy, softness and clarity, due to the effect of the grain of the paper. Unless you press hard with the pencil, the pigment particles catch only on the raised tooth of the paper, leaving the indents untouched; these tiny flecks of white paper reflect light, and this lends translucency to the colours.
Light hatching
Coloured pencils produce a translucent effect that allows you to layer coloured marks to create subtle tones and hues. Here, the figure’s solidity is achieved through lightly hatched lines. The illumination is suggested by highlights, using the white paper.
Making the paper work
Sarah Donaldson
Seated Nude
Coloured pencil on paper
42 × 30cm (16¾ × 12in)
As with watercolours, the secret is to make the white of the paper work for you. Rather than applying dense layers of colour – which quickly makes the surface greasy and unworkable, preventing any further build-up of colour – deepen the colour by degrees, allowing plenty of white paper to show through the lines.
Building up colour
In many ways, coloured pencils work like watercolours. When they are used on white paper, the marks they make are transparent or semi-transparent, which means you can put down one colour on top of another, building up hues, tones and intensities until you achieve the result you want.
Maintaining the best point
Using the natural backwards-and-forwards motion of the arm, work speedily, fractionally rotating the shaft of the pencil in your fingers from time to time, to find the best shading edge and to make the tip flatter or sharper as required.
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| WATER-SOLUBLE COLOURED PENCILS | These offer all the advantages of coloured pencils, but include a water-soluble ingredient in the lead, so that it is possible to thin out their colour into a transparent wash. |
Using water-soluble pencils
Colour applied dry
Dissolved with wet watercolour brush
Dissolved with wet sponge
Dissolved with wet finger
Dry point on wet paper
Point dipped in water, on dry paper
Combined with other materials
You can apply the colour dry, as you would with an ordinary coloured pencil, and you can also use a wet watercolour brush, a wet sponge, or even a wet finger, to loosen the pigment particles and create a subtle watercolour effect. When the washes have dried, you can then add further colour and linear detail, using the pencils dry. If you dampen the paper first, the marks made by the pencil will bleed slightly and produce broad, soft lines.
This facility for producing tightly controlled work and loose washes makes water-soluble pencils a flexible medium, and they are very appropriate for rendering natural subjects. They are often used in combination with watercolours, felt-tipped pens, pencil or pen and ink.
Techniques
Apply the colours with light, hatched strokes, then use a soft brush, rinsed regularly in clean water, to gently blend the strokes and produce a smooth texture. This can take a little practice, as too much water will flood the paint surface and make it blotchy, while insufficient water will prevent the colours from blending well; the ideal result resembles a watercolour wash. Heavy pencil strokes will persist and show through the wash.
Textures
Interesting textures can be created by building up the picture with multiple layers of dry pigment and water-dissolved colour. When adding dry colour over a dissolved base, however, the paper must first be completely dry; if it is still damp, it will moisten the pencil point and produce a blurred line, and the paper may even tear.
Coloured and water-soluble pencils
These pencils offer a surprisingly varied range of techniques and effects.
Anna Wood
Tomatoes
Water-soluble pencil on paper
50 × 35cm (20 × 14in)
Anna Wood uses water-soluble crayons – which are thicker and juicier than pencils – which suit her spontaneous way of working. Suggestions of form, texture and space emerge from the accidental marks left as the colour washes spread and dry.
David Suff
The History Garden (Twa Corbies)
Coloured pencil on paper
90 × 90cm (36 × 36in)
The astonishing detail and beautiful texture in David Suff’s drawing below are built up painstakingly with tiny strokes, applied layer on layer.
Michael Stiff
Detail, Greek-Thomson Church, Glasgow
Coloured pencil and pastel on paper
25 × 20cm (10 × 8in)
Michael Stiff’s work above left has a similar sense of heightened reality. He blends pastel dust into a smooth layer to produce the basic tonal areas, over which he applies finely hatched strokes of coloured pencil.
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| CHARCOAL | Charcoal has been used for drawing since prehistoric times: using soot and sticks of charred wood from the fire as drawing tools, early cavemen covered the walls of their caves with images of the animals they hunted. Since then, charcoal has never lost its popularity. |
A user-friendly medium
Charcoal is an excellent medium for beginners, as it encourages the student to treat subjects in broad terms and not become lost in detail. At the same time it is a forgiving medium, which is very easy to erase and correct by rubbing marks off with a finger or a wad of tissue.
Charcoal sticks
Stick charcoal is made from vine, beech or willow twigs charred at high temperatures in airtight kilns. Willow is the commonest type; vine and beech charcoal are more expensive, but make a richer mark. Lengths up to 15cm (6in) are available in boxes, and vary in thicknesses and degrees of hardness. Soft charcoal is more powdery and adheres less easily to the paper than hard charcoal, so it is better suited to blending and smudging techniques and creating broad tonal areas. The harder type of charcoal is more appropriate for detailed, linear work, as it does not smudge so readily. The only drawback with stick charcoal is that it is very brittle and fragile, and tends to snap when used vigorously.
Compressed charcoal
Vine, beech and willow charcoal
This is made out of powder ground from charcoal, mixed with a binder and pressed into short, thick sticks. Compressed charcoal is stronger than stick charcoal and does not break so easily. It produces dense, velvety blacks, but is less easy to dust off than natural charcoal.
Charcoal pencils
These pencils are made from thin sticks of compressed charcoal encased in wood. They are cleaner to handle and easier to control than stick charcoal, and have a slightly harder texture. Only the point can be used, so they cannot produce a broad side-stroke, but they make firm lines and strokes. Charcoal pencils come in hard, medium and soft grades; the tip can be sharpened, like graphite pencils.
Versatility
Charcoal is a wonderfully liberating medium, so immediate and responsive in use that it is almost like an extension of the artist’s fingers. Simply by twisting and varying the pressure on the stick, you can make fluid lines that vary from soft and tentative to bold and vigorous. Rich tonal effects, ranging from deep blacks to misty greys, are achieved by smudging and blending charcoal lines with the fingers or with a paper stump, and highlights can be picked out with a kneaded-putty eraser.
Detailed work
Easily sharpened, pencils are perhaps the best form of charcoal for doing detailed drawing.
Working at a distance
Charcoal works well for large-scale drawings executed at the easel. You need to stand well back from the easel, so that your drawing arm is not cramped and you can view the drawing as a whole through each stage of progress.
Attaching charcoal to a cane
Working at a distance is made easier by securing the charcoal stick to the end of a cane – a method used by Renaissance painters when drawing images for frescoes. Cut a piece of cane to the required length. At one end of the cane make two 25mm (1 in) cuts at right angles. Push the charcoal firmly into the end, leaving a reasonable length protruding, and then secure with tape wound round the cane.
Tonal effects
The most effective method of achieving these is by smudging and blending charcoal lines with fingers or with a paper stump.
Rosemary Young
Reclining Nude
Charcoal on paper
35 × 45cm (14 × 18in)
Charcoal is a painterly medium, allowing a rich patina of marks to be built up with line and tone. Both of these artists’ drawings evolve gradually, the final image being enriched by the previous alterations. Rosemary Young works at an easel, using charcoal attached to a length of cane to allow her greater mobility.
Highlights
These can be picked out with a kneaded putty eraser.
Exploiting the grain of the paper
One of the most interesting of charcoal’s characteristics is that it is sympathetic to the texture and grain of the paper, allowing it to show through and contribute to the surface interest of the drawing. This is especially the case when the charcoal stick is used on its side and swept lightly over the surface.
Fixing charcoal
Sarah Cawkwell
Hair Piece
Charcoal on paper
147.5 × 118.7cm (59 × 47½in)
The soft nature of charcoal makes it messy to handle, and the strokes may be accidentally smeared with the heel of the hand. Keep a damp rag handy, and wipe your fingertips regularly to avoid leaving prints on the paper. It is advisable to spray finished charcoal drawings fairly liberally with fixative to protect them from smudging.
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| PASTELS | Pastels are made from finely ground pigments mixed with a base such as chalk or clay and bound together with gum to form a stiff paste. This is then cut and shaped into sticks and allowed to harden. There are four types of pastel available: soft and hard pastels, pastel pencils and oil pastels. They are available in different shapes – round or square, thin or chunky. |
Tints and shades
Pastels are made in a wide range of tints and shades, derived from a selection of full-strength pigment colours. The tints are achieved by adding more base and white pigment to the original colour, and by repeating this process to produce a series of increasingly lighter shades.
The tonal range of each pastel colour is usually indicated by a system of numbering which corresponds to the various strengths of each colour; for example, in some ranges burnt umber has No. 1 against its lightest shade, and No. 8 against its darkest. This system of numbering, however, is not standardized from one manufacturer to another, so it is worth checking catalogues and colour charts.
Soft pastels
Soft pastels are the most widely used of the various pastel types, because they produce the wonderful velvety bloom which is one of the main attractions of pastel art. They contain proportionally more pigment and less binder, so the colours are rich and vibrant.
The smooth, thick quality of soft pastels produces rich, painterly effects. They are easy to apply, requiring little pressure to make a mark, and can be smudged and blended with a finger, a rag or a paper stump.
The only drawback of soft pastels is their fragility. Because they contain little binding agent they are apt to crumble and break easily, and they are more prone to smudging than other types of pastels. A light spray with fixative after each stage of the work will help to prevent such smudging.
Hard pastels
These contain less pigment and more binder than the soft type of pastels, so although the colours are not as brilliant, they do have a firmer consistency. Hard pastels can be sharpened to a point with a blade and used to produce crisp lines and details. They do not crumble and break as easily as soft pastels, nor do they clog the tooth of the paper; they are often used in the preliminary stages of a painting, to outline the composition, or to add details and accents in the latter stages, sometimes in combination with other drawing and painting media.
Pastel pencils
Thin pastel sticks are available encased in wooden shafts, like pencils. Pastel pencils are clean to use, do not break or crumble like traditional pastels, and give greater control of handling. They are suitable for both line sketches and detailed or small-scale work, and can be used in conjunction with hard and soft pastels.
Let the buyer beware
Since the degree of softness varies noticeably from one brand of soft pastel to another, you should try out individual sticks from different manufacturers until you find the one that suits you best. Only then buy a full range.
Permanence
Reputable manufacturers provide the names of lightfast pigments, such as burnt umber, that are used in pastels. Pastels in cheaper ranges often are given romantically descriptive names which, however, give no indication of the nature or permanence of the pigment.
Versatility
Working with the tip
Working with the side
Pastels are both a painting and a drawing medium. Working with the side of the crayon creates broad, painterly strokes that can be blended and smudged or built up in thickly impasted layers, with the solid, buttery appearance of an oil painting. Working with the tip of the crayon, you can make thin lines and crisp marks that create a very different feel.
Blending
Blending with a fingertip
One of the attractions of a powdery medium such as pastel is that it is easily blended to create soft, velvety tones and subtle gradations from dark to light. Blending has many uses – softening fine lines and details, suggesting smooth textures, modelling form with degrees of light and shade, lightening tones, and tying shapes together. To create an area of blended tone, either apply lightly scribbled strokes with the point of the stick, or use the side of the stick to make a broad mark, but do not press too hard – if the mark is too ingrained it will be difficult to blend. Then lightly rub the surface with the tip of your finger or a rag, tissue or paper stump, to blend the marks together and create an even tone. Repeat the process if a darker tone is required.
Line and tone
Lines over soft blending
You can use blended tones alone, or mix blended and linear techniques to add variety and texture. Another approach is to create an area of soft blending and then overlay it with linear strokes. Here, the blended tones act somewhat like an underpainting, adding extra depth and subtlety to the image, while the strokes tie the image together.
Scumbling
Scumbling
Scumbling modifies the colour of a tinted paper or a layer of pastel by applying a thin, semi-opaque layer of another colour over it. Loose, circular strokes are applied with the side of the pastel stick to create a thin veil of colour which does not entirely obliterate the one underneath. Scumbling not only creates subtle colour effects, but it also gives a very attractive surface texture. Use it to give depth and luminosity to your colours, and to soften and unify different areas of the drawing.
James Crittenden
Windy Day
Pastel on paper
65 × 75cm (26 × 30in)
Jackie Simmonds
The Glass Table
Pastel on paper
45 × 60cm (18 × 24in)
Among the many ways of applying pastel, the ‘painting’ and ‘drawing’ disciplines can be used alongside each other to create a breathtaking range of effects. These two pictures show some of the varied textures that can be produced, from broken, grainy strokes to delicate ‘washes’.
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| OIL PASTELS | Oil pastels are made by combining raw pigments with animal fat and wax; this makes them somewhat different in character from soft pastels, which are bound with gum. Whereas soft pastels are known for their velvety texture and subtle colours, oil pastels make thick, buttery strokes, and their colours are more intense. Oil pastels are also stronger, harder and less crumbly than soft pastels; since they tend not to smudge, they require little or no fixative, but they are more difficult to blend. |
Using oil pastels
Working with a robust medium such as oil pastels will encourage a bold and direct approach which is of enormous benefit in developing confidence in your drawing and using colours. In fact, oil pastels are not ideally suited to small-scale, detailed work; the sticks are too chunky for this, and fine blending is not possible. It is far better practice to exploit the tactile qualities of the medium and to work on a large scale, using various textural strokes and building up a rich patina of waxy colour.
As with the other types of pastels and crayons, optical colour mixtures can be created by techniques such as hatching, crosshatching or gentle shading with superimposed colours.
Blending and mixing
Dry oil pastel on blended pastel
Because of their waxy texture, only a minimal amount of blending is possible with oil pastels. The colours can, however, be applied to the support and then spread and blended with a brush, rag or tissue which has been dipped in white (mineral) spirit or turpentine. As the pastel mixes with the turpentine it dissolves and takes on the quality of thinned oil paint, and the colours become richer and darker. When they are dry, you can work over the painted’ areas with linear strokes of dry oil pastel to add textural variety.
Finger blending
Blended with a wet finger
The drawn surface can be smoothed and blended with a wet finger. Because oil and water are incompatible, a dampened finger will not pick up the colour from the paper but will just smooth and blend the surface of the oil pastel.
Sgraffito
Scratched back or sgraffito
A layer of solid colour can be built up, and the waxy surface scratched into with a sharp tool to create lively patterns and textures – a technique known as sgraffito. Further interest is added by applying one colour over another and then scratching back through the top layer to reveal the colour below.
Wax resist
Wax resist
Blended oil pastel
Oil pastel can be used with watercolour paint to build up a lively surface or to suggest natural textures. The paint adheres to the paper but is resisted by the waxy pastel marks, and results in a random, mottled effect. A more pronounced pattern can be achieved by working on rough-surfaced paper.
Diluents for oil pastels
Turpentine and white (mineral) spirit dissolve oil pastel and can be used for blending colours and obtaining painterly surface effects. Your initial drawing can be modified using a brush which has been dipped in a diluent and worked over the surface.
Simon Jennings
Upstream Greenwich
Oil pastel and graphite pencil on paper
41 × 57.5cm (16½ × 23in)
Oil pastels work particularly well in combination with other media. Here, the artist emphasized the sky and the dramatic sweep of the river with lines and flecks of oil pastel, which were then blended with turpentine. The details of the buildings in the foreground were added with graphite pencil, which glides over an oil pastel ground.
Simon Jennings
Portrait of a Tulip Oil pastel on paper 58.7 × 41cm (23½ x16½in)
A painterly surface was built up in the image above by using oil painting techniques, which included blending into thick layers of colour, scraping back with a knife, blending and smudging with fingers and scratching in lines with a pointed paintbrush handle. The oil-paint shine that resulted can be seen in the surface reflection.
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| CONTÉ CRAYONS | These crayons were invented by the Frenchman Nicolas-Jacques Conté, who was also responsible for inventing the modern lead pencil in the eighteenth century Made from pigment and graphite bound together with gum and a little grease, conté crayons are similar to pastels in their consistency and appearance, but are slightly harder and oilier. They are available in pencil form, and in the original form of square-section sticks about 75mm (3in) long. |
Types and colours
Conté crayons are similar in effect to charcoal, but because they are harder they can be used for rendering fine lines as well as broad tonal areas. Although conté crayons are now available in a wide range of colours, many artists still favour the restrained harmony of the traditional combination of black, white, grey and earth colours – sepia, sanguine (terracotta red) and bistre (cool brown). These colours impart a unique warmth and softness to a drawing, and are particularly appropriate to portraits and nude figure studies. The traditional colours also lend to drawings an antique look, reminiscent of the chalk drawings of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Rubens or Claude.
Fine and broad strokes
Modern, pencil-form colours
As with pastels, the most practical method of using conté crayons is to snap off small pieces about 25mm (1in) long. This way, you can rapidly block in tonal areas with the side of the stick and use a sharp corner at the end for drawing expressive lines.
Blending conté
Snap off small pieces
Conté is soft enough to blend colours by rubbing them together with a finger, a soft rag or a paper stump. However, because they are less powdery than chalk and charcoal, conté colours can be mixed by laying one colour over another, so that the colours beneath show through.
Conté work
Blending by laying and rubbing colours
Like pastels, conté crayons are used to their best advantage on tinted paper with a textured surface, which brings out the distinctive qualities of the marks.
John Raynes
Portrait of a Girl Coloured and white conté crayon on tinted paper 51 × 34cm (20½ × 13½in)
John Raynes uses white conté skilfully to capture crisp highlights on his model’s white shirt.
Victor Ambrus
Dorothy’s Dog Lalla Black conté crayon, on paper 76 × 56.5cm (30 × 22¼in)
Victor Ambrus
Morag Coloured conté crayon on paper 56.5 × 76cm (22½ × 30in)
The two drawings by Victor Ambrus show the surprising range of textures that can be achieved by using only coloured or black crayons on a cream coloured paper.
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| PEN AND INK | Pen and ink is a delightful and flexible medium which has been popular with artists since Ancient Egyptian times. The medium is capable of an enormous range of techniques and effects, but the materials required are very simple. The choice available of drawing pens and nibs is large, but falls into two distinct categories: dip pens and reservoir pens. |
Dip pens
Reed, quill and metal pens (metal nibs set into holders) are all classified as dip pens, as they are loaded by being dip ped directly into the ink. The nib retains a small amount of ink, which is held in place by its own surface tension. Dip pens produce very expressive lines which swell and taper according to the amount of pressure applied to the pen.
Reservoir pens
Reservoir pens carry ink in a special holder or cartridge and need only to be refilled from time to time, but in general their nibs are less flexible than those of dip pens.
Nibs
The nib itself is known as the ‘pen’, and the main shaft is the ‘penholder’. A great variety of nib shapes and sizes is readily available. Each nib makes a different range of marks, and the more flexible the nib, the more varied the thickness of line it makes. Since they are so inexpensive, it is worth trying several before buying.
Metal pens
Dip pens with metal nibs have long been the traditional tool of pen-and-ink artists and illustrators. Inexpensive and versatile, these pens consist of a holder and an interchangeable steel nib.
Mapping pens
Mapping pens have a very fine, straight point for detailed drawings. Because the metal nibs are flexible, you can vary the thickness of line to a considerable degree.
Crow-quill pens
Crow-quill pens (a type of mapping pen) also have a delicate point for producing detailed work, but can be less flexible than mapping pens.
Bamboo and reed pens
Bamboo and reed pens may have declined in popularity since the availability of more sophisticated pens, but many artists still use them. Their blunt, coarse and slightly irregular strokes make them ideal for bold line drawings, and their appeal often lies in the sheer pleasure that can be derived from drawing with such a ‘primitive’ instrument.
Ink for metal pens
Metal pens can be used with any type of ink – waterproof or water-soluble – because there is no mechanism to clog up. However, the nibs should be cleaned regularly under running water to prevent the ink from caking.
Making a quill pen
Use a stout, round feather, preferably goose. Trim the barbs back (1), to make the feather easier to hold. Shape the tip of the quill with a sharp knife. Make a curved, diagonal cut (2), then remove the keratin filling from the quill. Make a single cut, running up from the tip, to make a channel for ink (3).
Quill pens
Quill pens are made from the wing feathers of birds such as geese, turkeys or swans. They are often an ideal choice if you want to make fine, responsive lines. However, the nib is fragile, so they are best suited to small sketches and detailed drawings.
Technical pens
Originally designed for use by professional illustrators and designers, technical pens deliver ink down a narrow tube instead of a nib. This produces a very even line of a specific and unvarying width, regardless of the direction in which the pen is moved. The fine, fragile strokes made by technical pens are most appropriate for a controlled, graphic style of drawing. Like fountain pens, technical pens are easily portable and contain their own supply of ink. But, unlike fountain pens, the ink flow is fine and even, and lasts much longer, so you no longer have to carry bottles of ink which can break, leak or spill. The narrow tubular nibs for technical pens, available in an increasing variety of point sizes, are interchangeable within each range, and can be quickly switched.
Nib units for technical pens
For most drawings, you will need only one holder and several nib units in a range of different sizes.
Ink for technical pens
Technical pens should only be used with inks designed for them. These are usually lightfast, but are not waterproof. The ink supply is held in a reservoir and can be topped up with a dropper, or from a purpose-made filler bottle. The nibs should not be left uncovered, as the ink will dry in its channel, and they must be cleaned regularly with warm water. If the pens are not to be used for some time, they should be emptied and cleaned.
Fountain pens
Fountain pens feel much smoother to draw with than dip pens, and because they produce a steady flow of ink to the nib, they don’t need to be dipped frequently. This makes them useful for impromptu sketching. However, since fountain-pen nibs have little flexibility, it is not very easy to vary the thickness of your lines. The nib range is also quite limited.
Ink for fountain pens
To prevent them clogging, most fountain pens require non-waterproof ink, drawn into the barrel by suction through the nib. An exception to this rule is Indian ink pens, which are made specially for use with this type of ink and have a choice of two sketching nibs, graded ‘ordinary’ and ‘bold’.
Sketching pens
Also known as ‘art pens’, these combine the expressive qualities of a dip pen with the convenience of a reservoir pen. In appearance they resemble an ordinary fountain pen, but they have flexible nibs designed specially for drawing, which deliver ink smoothly to the paper via a pre-filled ink cartridge.
Filler adaptors
Coloured sketching pen cartridges
‘Art pens’also have a fillerad aptor which enables you to fill them with a range of liquid colours.
| DRAWING INKS | For monochrome drawings, Indian ink is still the favourite choice of many artists, as it is both permanent and waterproof. Sepia and blue-black inks also have their own appeal, and all can be diluted with water to produce a range of light-to-dark tones in one drawing. |
Waterproof coloured inks
Waterproof coloured inks, also called artists’ drawing inks, come in a range of about 20 colours. Waterproof inks are essential if you intend to apply a wash or tint on top of a line drawing, otherwise the linework will run. These inks are denser than non-waterproof varieties, drying to a slightly glossy finish that gives the work a precise, painted quality Unfortunately, the shellac that is added to the ink to make it waterproof also makes it clog up easily, so be sure to clean brushes and pens thoroughly after use. Never use waterproof ink in fountain pens or technical pens.
Non-waterproof coloured inks
These contain no shellac, and they are primarily used for laying washes over waterproof-ink drawings. They are fine for line drawings, too, as long as you don’t overlay them with washes. Non-waterproof inks sink into the paper more than waterproof types, and they dry to a matt finish.
Soluble inks
If you want the flexibility to be able to dissolve and blend lines, you should choose a soluble ink such as Chinese ink (see here), which is also more delicate than Indian ink.
Linework
Pen-and-ink drawings are usually composed of lines; hatching, crosshatching, stippling, dots and dashes, spattering and scribbling are just some of the techniques that can be employed to convey form and volume, texture, light and shade.
First strokes
Do not begin pen-and-ink work until you have tried drawing and practising movement and line with a pen or a brush. Work on a smooth paper, and learn to use a minimum of pressure to get an even flow of ink from the nib on to the paper. If you are practising with a dip pen, learn to judge when the ink will run out, so that you are not in the middle of a long unbroken line when it happens.
Spontaneity
Leslie Harris (1906–89)
Preparatory Studies Ink and wash on paper Various dimensions
It is a great advantage to make a very light preliminary design with a soft pencil if you want an accurate pen-and-ink drawing, rather than a quick sketch. But once the technique of pen-and-ink drawing becomes more familiar, spontaneous free-flowing lines and observations translated instantly onto paper will often make a far more exciting ink drawing than one which is premeditated. An ink drawing must be completely dry before preliminary pencil lines are erased or any washes added. Drying time is at least 12 hours, and even longer for a thick layer of ink.
Pen-and-ink work must be positive to look successful: once an ink mark has been made on paper, it is very difficult (and sometimes impossible) to erase, so there is no room for hesitation. Ideally, you need to have had enough drawing practice to know exactly what you want to put down before you start.
Pen drawing
Edmund J. Sullivan (1869–1933)
Bearded Man Pen and ink on paper 15 × 12.5cm (6 × 5in)
The illustrator Edmund J. Sullivan was regarded by his contemporaries as one of the finest draughtsmen of his day. This sketch displays great control of line and tone, allied to a remarkable sensitivity to the subject. It is a triumph of penmanship, all too rarely found today.
Using the techniques mentioned earlier, you can create areas of tone, volume, texture and the illusion of light and shade with just pen and ink. Increase your options by adding washes of ink or watercolour – an exciting fusion of drawing and painting which allows you to build up experience of both disciplines.
Line and wash
Richard Bell
Cat Sketches
Sketching pen and water-soluble
pencil on paper
Various dimensions
Line-and-wash drawings are highly expressive, suggesting more than is actually revealed. The secret is to work rapidly and intuitively, allowing the washes to flow over the ‘boundaries’ of the drawn lines and not be constricted by them. The combination of crisp, finely drawn lines and fluid washes has great visual appeal, capturing the essence of the subject with economy and restraint. Line and wash also helps to improve your drawing skills because it forces you to be selective and to develop a direct, fluid approach to your work.
Line-and-wash methods
Hil Scott
Squatting Nude
Pen, brush and ink on paper
43 × 33cm (17 × 13in)
In this vigorous line-and-wash study, Hil Scott combines calligraphic lines, drawn with a reed pen, with fluid tonal washes of Chinese brush and ink. With her sureness of touch she is able to convey a wealth of information – form and modelling, gesture and mood – with breathtaking simplicity and confidence.
The traditional method is to start with a pen drawing, leave it to dry and then lay in light, fluid washes of ink or watercolour on top. Alternatively, washes can be applied first to establish the main tones, with the ink lines drawn on top when the washes have dried. The most integrated method is to develop both line and tone together, so that they emerge as an organic whole. You might begin with a skeleton of lines, add some light tones, then some bolder lines and stronger tones, and so on until the drawing is complete.
Brush drawing
Brushes tend to be overlooked as instruments for drawing, as they are usually associated with painting techniques. Yet many great artists of the past – Rembrandt, Goya and Claude among them – produced some of their finest drawings with brush and ink.
Gordon Hales
On the Estuary Brush and ink on watercolour board 15 × 22cm (6 × 9in)
Speed and fast attack are both vital in capturing the telling gestures of a moving subject. Gordon Hales distilled the essentials of the scene above with his confident brushwork, using dilutions of ink to convey light and movement. Richard Bell sketched his subject with an expressive bamboo pen outline, filled in with a dense black mass of ink.
Diluting coloured inks
Coloured inks may be diluted with distilled water, not only to improve their flow, but also to produce a range of lighter tones. The inks can also be mixed with each other, but it is advisable to stick to the range of a single manufacturer, because brands of ink vary in consistency and in the surface finish they produce when dry. Pigment in ink settles at the bottom of a jar if left unused for some time, so the jar should be shaken before use.
Oriental inks
Chinese and Japanese inks come in solid-stick form and are usually supplied with an ink stone. The ink stick is rubbed down on the stone, with a little water being added until it is the desired consistency.
Restoring flow
If ink evaporates slightly while it is uncorked during a day’s work, the colour becomes deeper and the ink thicker. Adding a little distilled water will thin it and restore an even flow.
Permanence of inks
Only black and white inks are permanent. Coloured inks consist of soluble dyes rather than pigments, and are not lightfast. To minimize fading, always protect your finished drawings from prolonged exposure to light.
Richard Bell
Carrion Crows Pen and ink on paper Various dimensions
Soft brushes
The brush is an incredibly flexible drawing tool. A sable brush with a good point can, in a single stroke, convey line, rhythm, and even the play of light on a subject. It can change direction easily, twisting and rounding corners where a pen or pencil might falter. Sable and other soft-hair brushes are suitable for ink drawing; experiment with various types of brush on both smooth and textured papers, and compare the different marks they make.
Chinese brushes
Chinese bamboo-handle brushes, which were originally designed as a writing tool, are versatile, inexpensive and extremely expressive. The belly holds a lot of ink, and comes to a fine point for drawing rhythmic, flowing lines.
SEE ALSO
| MARKERS AND FIBRE-TIP PENS | Though normally associated with the graphic designer’s studio, pens with felt, fibre or plastic tips are now widely used by fine artists as well. |
Versatility
Markers are ideal for on-the-spot sketching, giving a rapid impression of form, colour and atmosphere.
The large range of markers and fibre-tip pens available makes them extremely useful for rendering both free, spontaneous sketches and sophisticated, detailed drawings. Coloured markers are especially convenient for outdoor sketching, because the colours are consistent and ready to use, and dry almost instantly.
Colour permanence
Markers come in many colours, with intensity and permanence varying according to brand. Since marker colours consist of dyes and not pigments, they tend to fade in time or when exposed to strong sunlight. This doesn’t matter for rough sketches, but for permanent artwork, make sure you buy a lightfast brand.
Gigol Atler
Sketchbooks
Various markers on paper
15 × 10cm (6 × 4in)
Water, spirits and alcohol
Solvent-based waterproof markers
Water-based soluble markers
Ordinary paper
Bleed-proof paper
Some markers contain water-based ink and are water-soluble; others contain spirit- or alcohol-based inks and are waterproof when dry. If you want to overlay colours, choose solvent-based markers, which are easily distinguished from water-based markers by their smell (alcohol-based ink has less odour than spirits). On a sketch pad, the colours may bleed through onto the next page, but you can buy marker pads in which the paper is formulated to resist colour bleeding.
Marker tips
Fibre-tip markers are fairly firm and smooth-flowing, and come with tips of all shapes and in most sizes.
Plastic-tip markers are hard and durable. Their tips make the finest lines.
Brush pens have resin tips. They are quite flexible and ideal for sketches and colour washes.
Roller pens are extremely tough, keeping their shape well. They produce a smooth, fine line.
These range from soft felt to hard tung sten car bide. Softer tips make smoother lines; hard ones keep their shape longer.
Tip shapes
Wedge-shape tips cover solid areas well. Drawing with the thin edge will produce fairly fine lines.
Bullet-shape tips are appropriate for bold strokes and solid areas, as well as dots suitable for stippling.
Fine-point tips are similar to technical pens, in that they produce even, fine lines.
Coloured-marker tips vary from broad wedges to fine points.
| ACCESSORIES | One of the best things about drawing media is that you will require very few accessories. The drawing aids described here are all inexpensive and easily purchased in specialist art shops. |
Erasers
Plastic or putty erasers are best, as India rubber tends to smear and can damage the paper surface. Putty erasers are very malleable; they can be broken off into smaller pieces and rolled to a point to reach details. You can also press the putty eraser onto the paper and lift off unwanted marks by pulling it away. Use it on soft graphite, charcoal or pastel drawings, both to erase and to create highlights.
Paper stumps
Paper stumps, also called torchons, are used for blending or shading charcoal, pastel or soft-graphite drawings. They are made of tightly rolled paper, with tapered ends for working on large areas, or a sharp point for small details.
Knives and sharpeners
You will need a sharp craft knife or penknife for sharpening pencils and cutting paper. Knives or other blades are also very useful for sgraffito work – scratching lines into an oil pastel drawing, for example, to create interesting textures.
Drawing board
You will need a firm support for drawing on sheets of loose paper. Drawing boards are available from art shops, but it is far less costly to get a good piece of smooth board, such as MDF, from a timber yard. If the board feels too hard, place a few extra sheets of paper under the top one to create a more yielding surface.
Fixative
Blowing fixative through an atomizer
The best way to preserve drawings is to spray them with fixative, which binds the particles of pigment to the surface of the paper. Fixative is available in aerosol-spray form or mouth-type atomizers. Aerosol sprays give an even coat, and are the most convenient to use when covering a large area. An atomizer is a metal diffuser with a plastic mouthpiece, which is stood in a bottle of fixative. Blowing through the atomizer will distribute a fine spray of fixative onto the drawing. Atomizers are ideal for spraying small areas, but it takes practice to get accustomed to using them, and they also need regular cleaning to prevent clogging.
Sharpening pencils
Pencil sharpeners are very convenient, but using a craft knife or scalpel will produce a longer, tapering cone that exposes enough lead for drawing broadly with the side.
Sharpening with sandpaper
Sandpaper blocks, which consist of small, tear-off sheets of sandpaper stapled together, are very handy for putting fine points on graphite sticks, pastels, crayons and lengths of charcoal.
SEE ALSO
