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[B] “Geology of Canada,” 1863.

[C] Paper by the author on Laurentian Graphite, “Journal of London Geological Society,” 1876.

The quantity of graphite in the Lower Laurentian series is enormous. Some years ago, in the township of Buckingham, on the Ottawa River, I examined a band of limestone believed to be a continuation of that described by Sir W. E. Logan as the Green Lake limestone. It was estimated to amount, with some thin interstratified bands of gneiss, to a thickness of six hundred feet or more, and was found to be filled with disseminated crystals of graphite and veins of the mineral to such an extent as to constitute in some places one-fourth of the whole; and, making every allowance for the poorer portions, this band cannot contain in all a less vertical thickness of pure graphite than from twenty to thirty feet. In the adjoining township of Lochaber Sir W. E. Logan notices a band from twenty-five to thirty feet thick, reticulated with graphite veins to such an extent as to be mined with profit for the mineral. At another place in the same district a bed of graphite from ten to twelve feet thick, and yielding 20 per cent, of the pure material, is worked. As it appears in the excavation made by the quarrymen, it resembled a bed of coal; and a block from this bed, about four feet thick, was a prominent object in the Canadian department of the Colonial Exhibition of 1886. When it is considered that graphite occurs in similar abundance at several other horizons, in beds of limestone which have been ascertained by Sir W. E. Logan to have an aggregate thickness of thirty-five hundred feet, it is scarcely an exaggeration to maintain that the quantity of carbon in the Laurentian is equal to that in similar areas of the Carboniferous system. It is also to be observed that an immense area in Canada appears to be occupied by these graphitic and Eozoon limestones, and that rich graphitic deposits exist in the continuation of this system in the State of New York, while in rocks believed to be of this age near St. John, New Brunswick, there is a very thick bed of graphitic limestone, and associated with it three regular beds of graphite, having an aggregate thickness of about five feet.[D]

[D] Matthew in “Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society,” vol. xxi., p. 423. “Acadian Geology,” p. 662.

It may fairly be assumed that in the present world, and in those geological periods with whose organic remains we are more familiar than with those of the Laurentian, there is no other source of unoxidized carbon in rocks than that furnished by organic matter, and that this has obtained its carbon in all cases, in the first instance, from the deoxidation of carbonic acid by living plants. No other source of carbon can, I believe, be imagined in the Laurentian period. We may, however, suppose either that the graphitic matter of the Laurentian has been accumulated in beds like those of coal, or that it has consisted of diffused bituminous matter similar to that in more modern bituminous shales and bituminous and oil-bearing limestones. The beds of graphite near St. John, some of those in the gneiss at Ticonderoga in New York, and at Lochaber and Buckingham, and elsewhere in Canada, are so pure and regular that one might fairly compare them with the graphitic coal of Rhode Island. These instances, however, are exceptional, and the greater part of the disseminated and vein graphite might rather be likened in its mode of occurrence to the bituminous matter in bituminous shales and limestones.

We may compare the disseminated graphite to that which we find in those districts of Canada in which Silurian and Devonian bituminous shales and limestones have been metamorphosed and converted into graphitic rocks not very dissimilar to those in the less altered portions of the Laurentian.[E] In like manner it seems probable that the numerous reticulating veins of graphite may have been formed by the segregation of bituminous matter into fissures and planes of least resistance, in the manner in which such veins occur in modern bituminous limestones and shales. Such bituminous veins occur in the Lower Carboniferous limestone and shale of Dorchester and Hillsborough, New Brunswick, with an arrangement very similar to that of the veins of graphite; and in the Quebec rocks of Point Levi, veins attaining to a thickness of more than a foot, are filled with a coaly matter having a transverse columnar structure, and regarded by Logan and Hunt as an altered bitumen. These palæozoic analogies would lead us to infer that the larger part of the Laurentian graphite falls under the second class of deposits above mentioned, and that, if of vegetable origin, the organic matter must have been thoroughly disintegrated and bituminised before it was changed into graphite. This would also give a probability that the vegetation implied was aquatic, or at least that it was accumulated under water.

[E] Granby, Melbourne, Owl’s Head, &c., “Geology of Canada,” 1863, p. 599.

Dr. Hunt has, however, observed an indication of terrestrial vegetation, or at least of subaërial decay, in the great beds of Laurentian iron-ore. These, if formed in the same manner as more modern deposits of this kind, would imply the reducing and solvent action of substances produced in the decay of plants. In this case such great ore-beds as that of Hull, on the Ottawa, seventy feet thick, or that near Newborough, two hundred feet thick,[F] must represent a corresponding quantity of vegetable matter which has totally disappeared. It may be added that similar demands on vegetable matter as a deoxidising agent are made by the beds and veins of metallic sulphides of the Laurentian, though some of the latter are no doubt of later date than the Laurentian rocks themselves.

[F] “Geology of Canada,” 1863.

It would be very desirable to confirm such conclusions as those above deduced by the evidence of actual microscopic structure. It is to be observed, however, that when, in more modern sediments, Algæ have been converted into bituminous matter, we cannot ordinarily obtain any structural evidence of the origin of such bitumen, and in the graphitic slates and limestones derived from the metamorphosis of such rocks no organic structure remains. It is true that, in certain bituminous shales and limestones of the Silurian system, shreds of organic tissue can sometimes be detected, and in some cases, as in the Lower Silurian limestone of the La Cloche Mountains in Canada, the pores of brachiopodous shells and the cells of corals have been penetrated by black bituminous matter, forming what may be regarded as natural injections, sometimes of much beauty. In correspondence with this, while in some Laurentian graphitic rocks, as, for instance, in the compact graphite of Clarendon, the carbon presents a curdled appearance due to segregation, and precisely similar to that of the bitumen in more modern bituminous rocks, I can detect in the graphitic limestones occasional fibrous structures which may be remains of plants, and in some specimens vermicular lines, which I believe to be tubes of Eozoon penetrated by matter once bituminous, but now in the state of graphite.

When palæozoic land-plants have been converted into graphite, they sometimes perfectly retain their structure. Mineral charcoal, with structure, exists in the graphitic coal of Rhode Island. The fronds of ferns, with their minutest veins perfect, are preserved in the Devonian shales of St. John, in the state of graphite; and in the same formation there are trunks of Conifers (Dadoxylon Ouangondianum) in which the material of the cell-walls has been converted into graphite, while their cavities have been filled with calcareous spar and quartz, the finest structures being preserved quite as well as in comparatively unaltered specimens from the coal-formation.[G] No structures so perfect have as yet been detected in the Laurentian, though in the largest of the three graphitic beds at St. John there appear to be fibrous structures, which I believe may indicate the existence of land-plants. This graphite is composed of contorted and slickensided laminæ, much like those of some bituminous shales and coarse coals; and in these are occasional small pyritous masses which show hollow carbonaceous fibres, in some cases presenting obscure indications of lateral pores. I regard these indications, however, as uncertain; and it is not as yet fully ascertained that these beds at St. John are on the same geological horizon with the Lower Laurentian of Canada, though they certainly underlie the Primordial series of the Acadian group, and are separated from it by beds having the character of the Huronian.

[G] “Acadian Geology,” p. 535. In calcined specimens the structures remain in the graphite after decalcification by an acid.

There is thus no absolute impossibility that distinct organic tissues may be found in the Laurentian graphite, if formed from land-plants, more especially if any plants existed at that time having true woody or vascular tissues; but it cannot with certainty be affirmed that such tissues have been found. It is possible, however, that in the Laurentian period the vegetation of the land may have consisted wholly of cellular plants, as, for example, mosses and lichens; and if so, there would be comparatively little hope of the distinct preservation of their forms or tissues, or of our being able to distinguish the remains of land-plants from those of Algæ.

We may sum up these facts and considerations in the following statements: First, that somewhat obscure traces of organic structure can be detected in the Laurentian graphite; secondly, that the general arrangement and microscopic structure of the substance corresponds with that of the carbonaceous and bituminous matters in marine formations of more modern date; thirdly, that if the Laurentian graphite has been derived from vegetable matter, it has only undergone a metamorphosis similar in kind to that which organic matter in metamorphosed sediments of later age has experienced; fourthly, that the association of the graphitic matter with organic limestone, beds of iron-ore, and metallic sulphides greatly strengthens the probability of its vegetable origin; fifthly, that when we consider the immense thickness and extent of the Eozoonal and graphitic limestones and iron-ore deposits of the Laurentian, if we admit the organic origin of the limestone and graphite, we must be prepared to believe that the life of that early period, though it may have existed under low forms, was most copiously developed, and that it equalled, perhaps surpassed, in its results, in the way of geological accumulation, that of any subsequent period.

Many years ago, at the meeting of the American Association in Albany, the writer was carrying into the room of the Geological Section a mass of fossil wood from the Devonian of Gaspé, when he met the late Professor Agassiz, and remarked that the specimen was the remains of a Devonian tree contemporaneous with his fishes of that age. “How I wish I could sit under its shade!” was the smiling reply of the great zoölogist; and when we think of the great accumulations of Laurentian carbon, and that we are entirely ignorant of the forms and structures of the vegetation which produced it, we can scarcely suppress a feeling of disappointment. Some things, however, we can safely infer from the facts that are known, and these it may be well to mention.

The climate and atmosphere of the Laurentian may have been well adapted for the sustenance of vegetable life. We can scarcely doubt that the internal heat of the earth still warmed the waters of the sea, and these warm waters must have diffused great quantities of mists and vapours over the land, giving a moist and equable if not a very clear atmosphere. The vast quantities of carbon dioxide afterwards sealed up in limestones and carbonaceous beds must also have still floated in the atmosphere and must have supplied abundance of the carbon, which constitutes the largest ingredient in vegetable tissues. Under these circumstances the whole world must have resembled a damp, warm greenhouse, and plants loving such an atmosphere could have grown luxuriantly. In these circumstances the lower forms of aquatic vegetation and those that love damp, warm air and wet soil would have been at home.

If we ask more particularly what kinds of plants might be expected to be introduced in such circumstances, we may obtain some information from the vegetation of the succeeding Palæozoic age, when such conditions still continued to a modified extent. In this period the club-mosses, ferns, and mare’s-tails engrossed the world and grew to sizes and attained degrees of complexity of structure not known in modern times. In the previous Laurentian age something similar may have happened to Algæ, to Fungi, to Lichens, to Liverworts, and Mosses. The Algæ may have attained to gigantic dimensions, and may have even ascended out of the water in some of their forms. These comparatively simple cellular and tubular structures, now degraded to the humble position of flat lichens or soft or corky fungi, or slender cellular mosses, may have been so strengthened and modified as to constitute forest-trees. This would be quite in harmony with what is observed in the development of other plants in primitive geological times; and a little later in this history we shall see that there is evidence in the flora of the Silurian of a survival of such forms.

It may be that no geologist or botanist will ever be able to realise these dreams of the past. But, on the other hand, it is quite possible that some fortunate chance may have somewhere preserved specimens of Laurentian plants showing their structure.

In any case we have here presented to us the strange and startling fact that the remarkable arrangement of protoplasmic matter and chlorophyll, which enables the vegetable cell to perform, with the aid of solar light, the miracle of decomposing carbon dioxide and water, and forming with them woody and corky tissues, had already been introduced upon the earth. It has been well said that no amount of study of inorganic nature would ever have enabled any one to anticipate the possibility of the construction of an apparatus having the chemical powers of the living vegetable cell. Yet this most marvellous structure seems to have been introduced in the full plenitude of its powers in the Laurentian age.

Whether this early Laurentian vegetation was the means of sustaining any animal life other than marine Protozoa, we do not know. It may have existed for its own sake alone, or merely as a purifier of the atmosphere, in preparation for the future introduction of land-animals. The fact that there have existed, even in modern times, oceanic islands rich in vegetation, yet untenanted by the higher forms of animal life, prepares us to believe that such conditions may have been general or universal in the primeval times we are here considering.

If we ask to what extent the carbon extracted from the atmosphere and stored up in the earth has been, or is likely to be, useful to man, the answer must be that it is not in a state to enable it to be used as mineral fuel. It has, however, important uses in the arts, though at present the supply seems rather in excess of the demand, and it may well be that there are uses of graphite still undiscovered, and to which it will yet be applied.

Finally, it is deserving of notice that, if Laurentian graphite indicates vegetable life, it indicates this in vast profusion. That incalculable quantities of vegetable matter have been oxidised and have disappeared we may believe on the evidence of the vast beds of iron-ore; and, in regard to that preserved as graphite, it is certain that every inch of that mineral must indicate many feet of crude vegetable matter.

It is remarkable that, in ascending from the Laurentian, we do not at first appear to advance in evidences of plant-life. The Huronian age, which succeeded the Laurentian, seems to have been a disturbed and unquiet time, and, except in certain bands of iron-ore and some dark slates coloured with carbonaceous matter, we find in it no evidence of vegetation. In the Cambrian a great subsidence of our continents began, which went on, though with local intermissions and reversals, all through the Siluro-Cambrian or Ordovician time. These times were, for this reason, remarkable for the great abundance and increase of marine animals rather than of land-plants. Still, there are some traces of land vegetation, and we may sketch first the facts of this kind which are known, and then advert to some points relating to the earlier Algæ, or sea-weeds.

An eminent Swedish geologist, Linnarsson, has described, under the name of Eophyton, certain impressions on old Cambrian rocks in Sweden, and which certainly present very plant-like forms. They want, however, any trace of carbonaceous matter, and seem rather to be grooves or marks cut in clay by the limbs or tails of some aquatic animal, and afterwards filled up and preserved by succeeding deposits. After examining large series of these specimens from Sweden, and from rocks of similar age in Canada, I confess that I have no faith in their vegetable nature.

The oldest plants known to me, and likely to have been of higher grade than Algæ, are specimens kindly presented to me by Dr. Alleyne Nicholson, of Aberdeen, and which he had named Buthotrephis Harknessii[H] and B. radiata. They are from the Skiddaw rocks of Cumberland. On examining these specimens, and others subsequently collected in the same locality by Dr. Gr. M. Dawson, while convinced by their form and carbonaceous character that they are really plants, I am inclined to refer them not to Algæ, but probably to Rhizocarps. They consist of slender branching stems, with whorls of elongate and pointed leaves, resembling the genus Annularia of the coal formation. I am inclined to believe that both of Nicholson’s species are parts of one plant, and for this I have proposed the generic name Protannularia (Fig. 1). Somewhat higher in the Siluro-Cambrian, in the Cincinnati group of America, Lesquereux has found some minute radiated leaves, referred by him to the genus Sphenophyllum,[I] which is also allied to Rhizocarps. Still more remarkable is the discovery in the same beds of a stem with rhombic areoles or leaf-bases, to which the name Protostigma has been given.[J] If a plant, this may have been allied to the club-mosses. This seems to be all that we at present know of land-vegetation in the Siluro-Cambrian. So far as the remains go, they indicate the presence of the families of Rhizocarps and of Lycopods.

[H] “Geological Magazine,” 1869.

[I] See figure in next chapter.

[J] Protostigma sigillarioides, Lesquereux.

Fig. 1.—Protannularia Harknessii (Nicholson), a probable Rhizocarp of the Ordovician period.

If we ascend into the Upper Silurian, or Silurian proper, the evidences of land vegetation somewhat increase. In 1859 I described, in “The Journal of the Geological Society” of London, a remarkable tree from the Lower Erian of Gaspé, under the name Prototaxites, but for which I now prefer the name Nematophyton. When in London, in 1870, I obtained permission to examine certain specimens of spore-cases or seeds from the Upper Ludlow (Silurian) formation of England, and which had been described by Sir Joseph Hooker under the name Pachytheca. In the same slabs with these I found fragments of fossil wood identical with those of the Gaspé plant. Still later I recognised similar fragments associated also with Pachytheca in the Silurian of Cape Bon Ami, New Brunswick. Lastly, Dr. Hicks has discovered similar wood, and also similar fruits, in the Denbighshire grits, at the base of the Silurian.[K]

[K] “Journal of the Geological Society,” August, 1881.

Fig. 2.—Nematophyton Logani (magnified). Vertical section.

Fig. 3.—Nematophyton Logani (magnified). Horizontal section, showing part of one of the radial spaces, with tubes passing into it.

Fig. 4.—Nematophyton Logani (magnified). Restoration.[L]

[L] Figs. 2, 3, and 4 are drawn from nature by Prof. Penhallow, of McGill College.

From comparison of this singular wood, the structure of which is represented in Figs. 2, 3, and 4, with the débris of fossil taxine woods, mineralised after long maceration in water, I was inclined to regard Prototaxites, or, as I have more recently named it, Nematophyton, as a primeval gymnosperm allied to those trees which Unger had described from the Erian of Thuringia, under the name Aporoxylon.[M] Later examples of more lax tissues from branches or young stems, and the elaborate examinations kindly undertaken for me by Professor Penhallow and referred to in a note to this chapter, have induced me to modify this view, and to hold that the tissues of these singular trees, which seem to have existed from the beginning of the Silurian age and to have finally disappeared in the early Erian, are altogether distinct from any form of vegetation hitherto known, and are possibly survivors of that prototypal flora to which I have already referred. They are trees of large size, with a coaly bark and large spreading roots, having the surface of the stem smooth or irregularly ribbed, but with a nodose or jointed appearance. Internally, they show a tissue of long, cylindrical tubes, traversed by a complex network of horizontal tubes thinner walled and of smaller size. The tubes are arranged in concentric zones, which, if annual rings, would in some specimens indicate an age of one hundred and fifty years. There are also radiating spaces, which I was at first disposed to regard as true medullary rays, or which at least indicate a radiating arrangement of the tissue. They now seem to be spaces extending from the centre towards the circumference of the stem, and to have contained bundles of tubes gathered from the general tissue and extending outward perhaps to organs or appendages on the surface. Carruthers has suggested a resemblance to Algæ, and has even proposed to change the name to Nematophycus, or “thread-sea-weed”; but the resemblance is by no means clear, and it would be quite as reasonable to compare the tissue to that of some Fungi or Lichens, or even to suppose that a plant composed of cylindrical tubes has been penetrated by the mycelium or spawn of a dry-rot fungus. But the tissues are too constant and too manifestly connected with each other to justify this last supposition. That the plant grew on land I cannot doubt, from its mode of occurrence; that it was of durable and resisting character is shown by its state of preservation; and the structure of the seeds called Pachytheca, with their constant association with these trees, give countenance to the belief that they are the fruit of Nematophyton. Of the foliage or fronds of these strange plants we unfortunately know nothing. They seem, however, to realise the idea of arboreal plants having structures akin to those of thallophytes, but with seeds so large and complex that they can scarcely be regarded as mere spores. They should perhaps constitute a separate class or order to which the name Nematodendreæ may be given, and of which Nematophyton will constitute one genus and Aporoxylon of Unger another.[N]

[M] “Palæontologie des Thuringer Waldes,” 1856.

[N] See report by the author on “Erian Flora of Canada,” 1871 and 1882, for full description of these fossils.

Another question arises as to the possible relation of these plants to other trees known by their external forms. The Protostigma of Lesquereux has already been referred to, and Claypole has described a tree from the Clinton group of the United States, with large ovate leaf-bases, to which he has given the name Glyptodendron.[O] If the markings on these plants are really leaf-bases, they can scarcely have been connected with Nematophyton, because that tree shows no such surface-markings, though, as we have seen, it had bundles of tubes passing diagonally to the surface. These plants were more probably trees with an axis of barred vessels and thick, cellular bark, like the Lepidodendron of later periods, to be noticed in the sequel. Dr. Hicks has also described from the same series of beds which afforded the fragments of Nematophyton certain carbonised dichotomous stems, which he has named Berwynia. It is just possible that these plants may have belonged to the Nematodendreæ. The thick and dense coaly matter which they show resembles the bark of these trees, the longitudinal striation in some of them may represent the fibrous structure, and the lateral projections which have been compared to leaves or leaf-bases may correspond with the superficial eminences of Nematophyton, and the spirally arranged punctures which it shows on its surface. In this case I should be disposed to regard the supposed stigmaria-like roots as really stems, and the supposed rootlets as short, spine-like rudimentary leaves. All such comparisons must, however, in the mean time be regarded as conjectural. We seem, however, to have here a type of tree very dissimilar to any even of the later Palæozoic age, which existed throughout the Silurian, and probably further back, which ceased to exist early in the Erian age, and before the appearance of the ordinary coniferous and lepidodendroid trees. May it not have been a survivor of an old arboreal flora extending back even to the Laurentian itself?

[O] “American Journal of Science,” 1878.

Multitudes of markings occurring on the surfaces of the older rocks have been referred to the Algæ or sea-weeds, and indeed this group has been a sort of refuge for the destitute to which palæontologists have been accustomed to refer any anomalous or inexplicable form which, while probably organic, could not be definitely referred to the animal kingdom. There can be no question that some of these are truly marine plants; and that plants of this kind occur in formations older than those in which we first find land-plants, and that they have continued to inhabit the sea down to the present time. It is also true that the oldest of these Algæ closely resemble in form plants of this kind still existing; and, since their simple cellular structures and soft tissues are scarcely ever preserved, their general forms are all that we can know, so that their exact resemblance to or difference from modern types can rarely be determined. For the same reasons it has proved difficult clearly to distinguish them from mere inorganic markings or the traces of animals, and the greatest divergence of opinion has occurred in recent times on these subjects, as any one can readily understand who consults the voluminous and well-illustrated memoirs of Nathorst, Williamson, Saporta, and Delgado.

The author of this work has given much attention to these remains, and has not been disposed to claim for the vegetable kingdom so many of them as some of his contemporaries.[P] The considerations which seem most important in making such distinctions are the following: 1. The presence or absence of carbonaceous matter. True Algæ not infrequently present at least a thin film of carbon representing their organic matter, and this is the more likely to occur in their case, as organic matters buried in marine deposits and not exposed to atmospheric oxidation are very likely to be preserved. 2. In the absence of organic matter, the staining of the containing rock, the disappearance or deoxidation of its ferruginous colouring matter, or the presence of iron pyrite may indicate the removal of organic matter by decay. 3. When organic matter and indications of it are altogether absent, and form alone remains, we have to distinguish from Algæ, trails and burrows similar to those of aquatic animals, casts of shrinkage-cracks, water-marks, and rill-marks widely diffused over the surfaces of beds. 4. Markings depressed on the upper surfaces of beds, and filled with the material of the succeeding layer, are usually mere impressions. The cases of possible exceptions to this are very rare. On the contrary, there are not infrequently forms in relief on the surfaces of rocks which are not Algæ, but may be shallow burrows arched upward on top, or castings of worms thrown up upon the surface. Sometimes, however, they may have been left by denudation of the surrounding material, just as footprints on dry snow remain in relief after the surrounding loose material has been drifted away by the wind; the portion consolidated by pressure being better able to resist the denuding agency.

[P] “Impressions and Footprints of Aquatic Animals,” “American Journal of Science,” 1873.

Fig. 5.—Trail of a modern king-crab, to illustrate imitations of plants sometimes named Bilobites.

Fig. 6.—Trail of Carboniferous crustacean (Rusichnites Acadicus), Nova Scotia, to illustrate supposed Algæ.

The footprints from the Potsdam sandstone in Canada, for which the name Protichnites was proposed by Owen, and which were by him referred to crustaceans probably resembling Limulus, were shown by the writer, in 1862,[Q] to correspond precisely with those of the American Limulus (Polyphemus Occidentalis) (Fig. 5). I proved by experiment with the modern animal that the recurring series of groups of markings were produced by the toes of the large posterior thoracic feet, the irregular scratches seen in Protichnites lineatus by the ordinary feet, and the central furrow by the tail. It was also shown that when the Limulus uses its swimming-feet it produces impressions of the character of those named Climactichnites, from the same beds which afford Protichnites. The principal difference between Protichnites and their modern representatives is that the latter have two lateral furrows produced by the sides of the carapace, which are wanting in the former.

[Q] “Canadian Naturalist,” vol. vii.

I subsequently applied the same explanation to several other ancient forms now known under the general name Bilobites (Figs. 6 and 7).[R]

[R] The name Bilobites was originally proposed by De Kay for a bivalve shell (Conocardium). Its application to supposed Algæ was an error, but this is of the less consequence, as these are not true plants but only animal trails.

Fig. 7.—Rusophycus (Rusichnites) Grenvillensis, an animal burrow of the Siluro-Cambrian, probably of a crustacean, a, Track connected with it.

The tuberculated impressions known as Phymatoderma and Caulerpites may, as Zeiller has shown, be made by the burrowing of the mole-cricket, and fine examples occurring in the Clinton formation of Canada are probably the work of Crustacea. It is probable, however, that some of the later forms referred to these genera are really Algæ related to Caulerpa, or even branches of Conifers of the genus Brachyphyllum.

Nereites and Planulites are tracks and burrows of worms, with or without marks of setæ, and some of the markings referred to Palæochorda, Palæophycus, and Scolithus have their places here. Many examples highly illustrative of the manner of formation of the impressions are afforded by Canadian rocks (Fig. 8).

Branching forms referred to Licrophycus of Billings, and some of those referred to Buthotrephis, Hall, as well as radiating markings referable to Scotolithus, Gyrophyllites, and Asterophycus, are explained by the branching burrows of worms illustrated by Nathorst and the author. Astropolithon, a singular radiating marking of the Canadian Cambrian,[S] seems to be something organic, but of what nature is uncertain (Fig. 9).

[S] Supplement to “Acadian Geology.”

Fig. 8.—Palæophycus Beverlyensis (Billings), a supposed Cambrian Fucoid, but probably an animal trail.

Rhabdichnites and Eophyton belong to impressions explicable by the trails of drifting sea-weeds, the tail-markings of Crustacea, and the ruts ploughed by bivalve mollusks, and occurring in the Silurian, Erian, and Carboniferous rocks.[T] Among these are the singular bilobate forms described as Rusophycus by Hall, and which are probably burrows or resting-places of crustaceans. The tracks of such animals, when walking, are the jointed impressions known as Arthrophycus and Crusiana. I have shown by the mode of occurrence of these, and Nathorst has confirmed this conclusion by elaborate experiments on living animals, that these forms are really trails impressed on soft sediments by animals and mostly by crustaceans.

[T] “Canadian Naturalist,” 1864.

I agree with Dr. Williamson[U] in believing that all or nearly all the forms referred to Crossochorda of Schimper are really animal impressions allied to Nereites, and due either to worms or, as Nathorst has shown to be possible, to small crustaceans. Many impressions of this kind occur in the Silurian beds of the Clinton series in Canada and New York, and are undoubtedly mere markings.

[U] “Tracks from Yoredale Rocks,” “Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,” 1885.

Fig. 9.—Astropolithon Hindii, an organism of the Lower Cambrian of Nova Scotia, possibly vegetable.

It is worthy of note that these markings strikingly resemble the so-called Eophyton, described by Torell from the Primordial of Sweden, and by Billings from that of Newfoundland; and which also occur abundantly in the Primordial of New Brunswick. After examining a series of these markings from Sweden shown to me by Mr. Carruthers in London, and also specimens from Newfoundland and a large number in situ at St. John, I am convinced that they cannot be plants, but must be markings of the nature of Rhabdichnites. This conclusion is based on the absence of carbonaceous matter, the intimate union of the markings with the surface of the stone, their indefinite forms, their want of nodes or appendages, and their markings being always of such a nature as could be produced by scratches of a sharp instrument. Since, however, fishes are yet unknown in beds of this age, they may possibly be referred to the feet or spinous tails of swimming crustaceans. Salter has already suggested this origin for some scratches of somewhat different form found in the Primordial of Great Britain. He supposed them to have been the work of species of Hymenocaris. These marks may, however, indicate the existence of some free-swimming animals of the Primordial seas as yet unknown to us.

Three other suggestions merit consideration in this connection. One is that Algæ and also land-plants, drifting with tides or currents, often make the most remarkable and fantastic trails. A marking of this kind has been observed by Dr. G. M. Dawson to be produced by a drifted Laminaria, and in complexity it resembled the extraordinary Ænigmichnus multiformis of Hitchcock from the Connecticut sandstones. Much more simple markings of this kind would suffice to give species of Eophyton. Another is furnished by a fact stated to the author by Prof. Morse, namely, that Lingulæ, when dislodged from their burrows, trail themselves over the bottom like worms, by means of their cirri. Colonies of these creatures, so abundant in the Primordial, may, when obliged to remove, have covered the surfaces of beds of mud with vermicular markings. The third is that the Rhabdichnite-markings resemble some of the grooves in Silurian rocks which have been referred to trails of Gasteropods, as, for instance, those from the Clinton group, described by Hall.

Another kind of markings not even organic, but altogether depending on physical causes, are the beautiful branching rill-marks produced by the oozing of water out of mud and sand-banks left by the tide, and which sometimes cover great surfaces with the most elaborate tracery, on the modern tidal shores as well as in some of the most ancient rocks. Dendrophycus[V] of Lesquereux seems to be an example of rill-mark, as well as Aristophycus, Clœphycus, and Zygopliycus, of Miller and Dyer, from the Lower Silurian.