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1. Setting the scene

“Now this is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning”

Sir Winston Churchill

History

The vine has a long if patchy history in England. Archaeological evidence suggests winemaking vines have been in this area since prehistoric times. Much has been made of Roman winemaking yet the evidence to date is largely inconclusive – Tacitus famously dismissed Britain’s climate at the time of the Roman conquest as, “objectionable, with its frequent rains and mists” and not suitable for the vine. Imports may simply have proven easier.

Vines at Nyetimber

While Bede stated in AD 731 that “vines are cultivated in various localities”, it seems to be the Normans who really got the English wine show on the road. The Bayeux Tapestry includes scenes of wine barrels being loaded onto ships (“cum vino et armis”). Sure enough, the subsequent Domesday surveys of the late 11th century reveal widespread vine growing. This timing also coincides with the Medieval Warm Period in Northern Europe from the 10th to the 13th centuries.

“ In 1988 the Mosses at Nyetimber bravely planted champagne varieties to make traditional method sparkling wine ”

Such a confluence of enthusiastic growers and a warming climate wasn’t to re-occur until recent times. For centuries, English wine seems to have been a sporadic affair, championed by rare enthusiasts with limited success. What’s known as English wine’s “modern” era began after World War II, when Raymond Barrington Brock’s eager experiments in vine growing at Oxted (Surrey) paved the way for commercial wine operations like Hambledon, Horam Manor and Beaulieu Vineyard. Most of these early wines were made from little known or Germanic grape varieties. But the advent of dry, fruit-driven New World wines made from international grape varieties in the 1980s and 1990s pulled the rug from under English wine producers and the UK vineyard withered from 1,065 hectares (ha) (2,632 acres) in 1993 to 761 ha (1,880 acres) by 2004.

At the same time, change was afoot on different fronts. For one thing, the climate was warming up. This meant that other grape varieties were becoming viable. Indeed, in 1988 the Mosses at Nyetimber bravely planted champagne varieties Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier to make traditional method sparkling wine. Critical acclaim ensued when the first wines were released at the end of the 1990s, precipitating a widespread shift towards these varieties and sparkling wine, which now accounts for around two-thirds of the UK’s overall production.

A revived UK wine scene has seen plantings rise and production soar over the last decade, buoyed by investment, the highest profile being Champagne producers Taittinger and Vranken-Pommery. There is now a sense of momentum behind UK wine, fuelled by increasing scale and quality plus growing experience and professionalism.

Present and future

Thirty years on from that defining moment in the late 1980s, English wine stands at a critical juncture in its evolution. Henners’ winemaker (and proud Frenchman) Eric Monnin describes the UK wine scene as, “The new New World”, a phrase that aptly conveys a sense of both exhilaration and trepidation.

On one hand, opportunity beckons. The UK currently boasts 707 vineyards (of more than 0.1 ha) and 135 wineries, with plantings having tripled since 2004 and predicted to reach 3,000 ha (7,410 acres) by 2020. Wine is one of the fastest growing agricultural sectors in the UK. Exports – presently 5% of production – are forecast to rise to 25% over the next few years. Sparkling wine, the UK’s speciality, is one of few growth sectors and the increasing appeal of sourcing locally is a further potential boost given the domestic UK wine market is the world’s sixth largest. Critical acclaim continues. There is a growing maturity as experience and equipment improves, investment increases, vines establish and the industry becomes ever more professional, ably supported by the fertile training ground that is Plumpton College in East Sussex.

“ Thirty years on from… the late 1980s, English wine stands at a juncture in its evolution [with] a sense of both exhilaration and trepidation ”

But there are challenges. Growing production raises the spectre of over-supply. Questions must be asked about how much English wine the market can and will absorb, both at home and abroad, especially if the recent trend for price inflation continues. This in turn raises the issue of commercial viability. In the UK, production (land, labour, equipment) costs are notoriously high and the industry is plagued by wildly fluctuating yields due to unpredictable weather – see Box. Capital investments are significant, especially when it comes to long-aged sparkling wines.

Within this context, there is uncertainty. Factors like climate change and Brexit have unpredictable outcomes. It’s also true to say that UK wine remains a nascent and small-scale category: winemaker Emma Rice describes UK sparkling wine as “like a fly on the wall of champagne”, accounting as it does for around 1% of annual champagne production and little over 2% of the fizz drunk in the UK every year. Will we see a time when wine-growing “hotspots” emerge, training institutions and vine nurseries flourish and vineyards lurk behind every British hedgerow? Or will we see another boom and bust?

Time will tell. The latter scenario seems unlikely given the kind of investment and professionalism that now forms the foundations of English wine. While setbacks and consolidation are normal to expect for an emerging industry, the basic proposition looks set to remain viable.

Climate

“An island of weather” is how Dr Alistair Nesbitt of Climate Wine Consulting pithily describes Britain. He notes how the British Isles lie beneath “six competing air masses”, which generate inherent climatic instability, a situation whose complexity is compounded by climate change. The UK, in short, is no easy place to be a weather forecaster or vine grower. John Atkinson MW makes wine at Tixover in Rutland. He memorably describes his occupation as, “A terrifying way to make a living: more adrenaline rush than Gold Rush.”

Rain is an issue. Vines hate having wet feet, so well drained soils are essential when there’s usually anywhere between 600-1,000 mm of precipitation per year. Rain can also cause rot late in the season and disrupt flowering early on, lowering all-important yields. In a 2016 paper by Nesbitt et al, June rainfall was identified as, “the single most determining variable in UK climatic suitability for viticulture, when expressed through yield”. Crucially, precipitation levels around flowering and harvest have not varied significantly over time, meaning it’s a challenge that’s likely to continue.

Altitude and aspect are key issues in English wine growing

Exposure is important. Given England’s northerly latitude, it makes sense to seek out south-facing slopes so sunlight is maximised. Yet this can mean exposure to prevailing southwesterly winds. Wind can help reduce disease pressure but also hinders flowering, disrupts canopies and disperses heat. Frost rears its icy head too, the risk compounded by climate change. Warming temperatures imply ever-earlier starts to the growing season, hence fragile buds appear just at the time when frost can snap, killing them and their potential fruit (as happened in 2017). Chardonnay and Pinot Noir may make top-quality wines but they also bud early so are more frost-prone than other varieties.

Climate change has meant rising temperatures. According to Nesbitt, the average growing season temperature (GST) is trending upwards: 13°C for 1954-83, 13.7°C for 1989-2003 and 14°C by 2004-13. (Incidentally, Champagne’s average GST from 1961-90 was 14.3°C.) On one level, climate change is thus benefitting England’s wine growers – the accepted threshold for fine wine production is 13°C. Yet at the same time, climate change causes more extreme and unpredictable weather events. This affects not just quality but also consistency and, in turn, long-term viability. No surprise, then, that UK wine growers view climate change as a threat as well as an opportunity.

Rigorously seeking out the best sites, implementing effective management strategies and strategic planning are thus the order of the day. In this way, the climatic risks can be minimised and the benefits of the UK’s long, temperate seasons can be maximised to give intensely flavoured, well balanced grapes ideal for sparkling and, increasingly, still wines.

“ Global warming is undoubtedly changing wine’s status quo [and] the UK is well placed to capitalise ”

Global warming is undoubtedly changing wine’s status quo. All great wine is made in marginal climates and, as that reality shifts for hitherto classic regions, the UK is well positioned to capitalise. As Nesbitt comments, “The UK has humungous potential moving forwards.”

Soils and geology

The geological map of Great Britain is a wondrous thing to behold. It’s hard not to gaze at the elegant Cretaceous limestone bands of the North and South Downs, sashaying round the sturdy sandstones of the High Weald and make sweeping wine assumptions. Similarly, it’s all too easy to note the similarities between the chalk of Champagne and this southern English geology and to conflate the two into one homogenous wine-growing whole.

Denbies sits on the limestone-rich South Downs

Yet geologists urge caution. According to Professor Alex Maltman of Aberystwyth University, the link between geology and wine is often romanticised or overstated. The notion that vineyard geology can somehow be tasted in the glass is, for him, “palpably absurd”. It is, in his view, more an issue of how myriad subtle differences in local sites (often “not readily visible” thus “less attractive than some charismatic geology”) affect the wine in the glass.

“A grower will need to assess each site on its merit,” counsels Maltman. Geology does have a part to play here. On one level, it influences topographical landscape: altitude, slope, aspect, orientation (and consequent exposure, wind patterns etc). It also has a profound bearing on drainage – a key issue in England’s rainy climate where well-drained substrates like sandstone and limestone work best. Nutrient availability and soil temperature are also influenced by geology, which may in turn have a bearing on microbiological activity, a topic currently sparking great interest for its potential impact on wine.

Nonetheless, on the basis of current evidence it is climate and aspect (in conjunction with winemaking) that seems to have the most impact on wine style and quality. For all its majesty, Britain’s geology is merely one element in a vastly more complex picture.

Viticulture and winemaking

Viticulture, in England’s young wine industry, is a lesson being learnt with every new vintage. The big challenge is working to ensure consistency and quality of yield. Site selection is key – in the words of champagne consultant Jean-Manuel Jacquinot, who played a decisive part in the initial success of English sparkling wine, “Finding the best terroirs is crucial.” Rootstocks, clones, pruning and disease management are all the subject of increasing focus and debate – ultimately, what matters is vine longevity plus wine quality and consistency in any given site. It’s also good to see organic viticulture being practised and promoted – not easy in a climate like England’s.

VINTAGES

“One year in five, prepare for disaster,” is winemaker Dermot Sugrue’s outlook. “But you always need a bit of luck,” he grins. The British climate can be magnificent but also cruel – the weather defined by inherent variability, not just from year to year but also place to place. This makes vintage generalisations difficult. Bear in mind for the figures below that the total vineyard area has been growing over time.

VINTAGES: VOLUME, STYLE AND QUALITY

2017: c. 5.3 million (m) bottles – vicious April frosts and mixed weather ended in one of the earliest harvests ever

2016: 4.2m bottles – expressive, intense, frequently very ripe fruit was produced in this low-yielding, late vintage: potentially great 2015: 5.1m bottles – fresher, leaner styles from a cooler year that came good in the end, a vintage for sparkling

2014: 6.4m bottles – plentiful vintage making for generous, expressive wines, including some fine still wines

2013: 4.5m bottles – very late vintage that struggled to ripen made for fresh, sometimes intense styles, best for fizz

2012: 1m bottles – wet, cold, dark annus horribilis (as the Queen might say) saw some make no wine at all; a few decent bottles are out there

2011: 3m bottles – small, ripe, concentrated vintage after an Indian summer; outstanding for some

2010: 4m bottles – there’s a coolness and reserve to this vintage despite the decent weather; wines are often delicate and elegant

2009: 3.2m bottles – a “textbook” vintage gave expressive, rounded, structured wines

Source: Wine Standards Branch (WSB), WineGB, authors’ own research

“ The naturally vivid, revitalising character of English wines benefits from the nuancing effect of ageing ”

In the winery, approaches vary. For example, some winemakers like to handle the juice in so-called “inert” presses, to retain freshness in the fruit. Others aren’t so protective, preferring to build up the wine’s structure early on. Malolactic fermentation (MLF) is a process whereby tangy malic acid (think green apples) is converted into softer lactic acid (think milk). Some winemakers choose to block MLF to keep that zippy feel in the wines (Hattingley’s Emma Rice describes this brilliantly as a wine’s, “steely English backbone – its stiff upper lip”). Others will do partial or full MLF to soften the style.

In sparkling wines, there is a growing trend to blend wines from different years – so called “non-vintage” styles. This offsets the risk of poor vintages and often makes for more satisfying and complex wines and so should be a sensible way forward for those who can manage to build up reserves. The naturally vivid, revitalising character of English wines benefits from the mellowing and nuancing effect of ageing: this should be a priority for producers despite the financial implications. Finally, it’s heartening to see bold, experimental wines – the likes of amphora ageing or so-called orange wines can add valuable colour and diversity to the nation’s wine portfolio.