Читать книгу The Majesty of the Horse: An Illustrated History - Tamsin Pickeral - Страница 8

1 | NOBLE BEGINNINGS

There is no other animal that has contributed on such a grand scale to the rise and spread of human culture as the horse. It was not the first animal to be domesticated—this is commonly believed to have been the dog around fourteen thousand years ago—but it has certainly been the most significant to humankind. Pragmatically, the horse has been a decisive and pivotal creature in early human development, but it is also touched by a certain sense of magic, shifting energy, and esoteric spirit that is unmatched in other domestic animals. In all its many shapes and sizes, the horse is a majestic being, a combination of fire and spirit, kindness and intelligence, speed and dexterity. Even when it is tamed and trained, there always remains a tiny spark of something wild.

The ancestor to the horse evolved approximately sixty million years ago in North America and spread down into South America and into Asia via prehistoric land bridges, then across to Europe and down into Africa. Sometime around the end of the last ice age (c. 10,000 years ago), the Bering Strait, a theorized land bridge joining Alaska to Russia, disappeared beneath the sea as waters rose with ice melt, and around one thousand years later horses became extinct in the Americas. It is generally held that horses were domesticated in Eurasia, considered the fountainhead of horse breeds, around six thousand years ago. It was here, and primarily in Kazakhstan and Mongolia, that horse breeding and horse cultures developed, with nomadic peoples spreading across the vast interior and taking their horses with them.

One theory to explain the development of different types of horse cites four primitive glacial and post-glacial horses as the ancestors to today’s horses. These are the Asiatic Wild Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii, or Equus caballus przewalskii), which is the world’s only truly wild horse still in existence; the Tarpan (Equus ferus ferus), which became officially extinct in the early twentieth century, but has been reconstituted using its close descendant the Hucul and Konik; the heavy Forest Horse (Equus caballus silvaticus), now extinct but the probable ancestor to the large, heavy, cold blood draft breeds of Europe; and the Tundra Horse, also extinct and not of great influence on modern horse breeds.

In the twentieth century, three experts on equine prehistory, led by J. G. Speed of Edinburgh, postulated a theory citing a further subgroup of four horse types that could account for all modern horse breeds. Speed suggested that, prior to horse domestication, four types of horse/pony had evolved: the first being Pony Type 1. This small pony (up to 12 hands high) lived in northwest Europe and was primarily descended from the Tarpan. Pony Type 1, also referred to as the Celtic pony, was tough, hardy, and weather resistant; its modern equivalents are the Exmoor Pony and the Icelandic Horse. The second postulated horse type is Pony Type 2, a larger version of Type 1 (up to 14.2 hands high) that lived in the frigid climate of northern Eurasia. This dun-colored, coarse-headed pony resembled the Asiatic Wild Horse, and its modern equivalent can be seen in the Highland Pony, the Norwegian Fjord, and the Noriker. Horse Type 3, one of the most significant of the four, was a desert horse with the desert characteristics that are seen in all modern equivalents. Type 3 was fine-boned and fine-skinned, lean and angular with no excess fat, and extremely resistant to the heat. It lived primarily in Central Asia and accounts for the desert horse breeds such as the ancient Turkmenian and the modern Akhal Teke. Finally, Horse Type 4 was small in stature and light in build, with a delicately chiseled, straight or concave profile and a high-set tail. This horse lived in western Asia and descended most probably from the Tarpan. Its modern equivalent is the Caspian and possibly even the Arabian. Speed’s theory is an oversimplification of horse evolution, but it gives the non-scientist a loose framework with which to consider this complicated subject. Of further confusion is the term “breed,” which is generally used to refer to types of horse that have been selectively bred by man and exhibit distinct characteristics. For purposes here, and to address ancient types of horse with naturally occurring similarities, the word “breed” is applied to both man-made and naturally occurring types with common traits.

There are two primary factors that contribute toward the development of different breeds of horse, and these are geography or environment, and human interference. The earliest horse breeds evolved to meet and thrive within their climatic and geographic habitat, such as the weather-resistant Exmoor pony and the mountain-dwelling Hucul. Following domestication, humans began to take these horses and impose a system of breeding in order to fix certain characteristics to suit their purposes. Sophisticated horse management dates back around three thousand years, and it was practiced by the pastoral nomads of the Eurasian steppes, such as the Cimmerians and the Scythians. Astonishing discoveries in the caves of Pazyryk, Siberia, provide evidence of the Scythian methods. Here, preserved through climatic conditions, numerous horses were found buried. The well-preserved horses exhibited clear types, for riding and draft, and, suggestive of breeding policies, they had also been castrated and fed on grains. Remnants of horse equipment such as saddle cloths, bridles, ornate headdresses for the horses, bits, and whips were also found and shed further light on this extraordinary and highly advanced equestrian culture.

Long before the Scythians, and around five thousand years ago, the nomadic people of the Central Asian steppes had centered their cultures around the horse. Horses were kept in large herds and would have provided a constant source of meat and milk. They were ridden, used for pulling loads, and probably also packed. Horse skin was utilized, sinew made into thread, and bones used as various tools. Importance and wealth were measured according to an individual’s horses. Horses were also entertainment: they were raced, and fast and furious games played.

These ancient Eurasian horse cultures spread, taking their horses and languages with them. In around 3,000 B.C.E., the Indo-European Hittites battled their way into what is now Turkey. The Hittites are credited with producing the first manual on horse training and management, written by Kikkuli c. 1360 B.C.E. In ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq), two important horse cultures existed, the Sumerians in the south whose empire ruled during the third millennium B.C.E., and in the north the Assyrians who held power from c. 2,000 to 612 B.C.E. Assyrian reliefs on the palace walls at Nineveh and Nimrod reveal a culture of expert horsemen who raced chariots, traveled, battled, and hunted from horseback, being able to shoot arrows at a gallop with no saddle. This skill was perfected many years later by the Parthians, who waged battles across the Persian (Iranian) borders. The Parthians were able to shoot arrows behind them (the parting shot) while at a flat gallop on their finely built desert horses, which bore much in common with the ancient Turkmenian, the Iomud, and the Akhal Teke.

Persia (Iran) was an important early center of horse breeding, and Persian horses were much sought after during the time of the Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.E.). In particular, there was the legendary Nisean horse, one of the superhorses of prehistory that was widely prized for use in the military. The Nisean could have developed from crossbreeding between the Tarpan, the Asiatic Wild Horse, Horse Type 4, and Horse Type 3. They were taller and faster than their contemporaries and contributed greatly toward Persian military dominance; it is possible that they were the ancestor of the Akhal Teke and Iomud through the ancient Turkmenian. It was also in Persia that the tiny Caspian horse evolved, a horse breed that is still in existence today. These diminutive animals were widely used in chariot racing and famed for their bravery and speed.

The use of horses in battle to win new territories and expand borders was one of the major factors in early horse breeding systems, because the dominance of land was a priority. Warring nomads such as the Scythians and Parthians, and much later Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227), waged their wars from the backs of their horses, and consequently needed stock that was quick, agile, brave, and easy to mount. Other ancient cultures, however, adopted different methods. The early Greeks, for example, commonly rode to battle in chariots pulled by small chariot horses, but fought on foot. By around 550 B.C.E., the Greeks incorporated mounted archers into their military strategy, and began to breed larger, heavier horses to carry their soldiers and to pull heavier carts of equipment. Although Greece is not a country whose environment favors horse breeding, the Greeks were highly organized and educated in their endeavors. Most horse breeding took place in Thessaly in northern Greece, where the grass was better quality, and Thessalonian horses became very popular. They were bred for different activities, from riding to draft to packing, and it is believed that the versatile Noriker horse first developed here before being taken by the Romans over the Alps into Austria during their conquests.

With the spread of their empire across Europe, the Romans had one of the most far-reaching early influences over the development of horse breeds. They were not expert horse people, but they were like the Greeks: supremely organized and systematic in their approach to their horses. They bred a wide range of horses for specific purposes and established breeding centers across Europe. As they marched through the continent, they took their horses with them and those of the people they conquered, which led to a wide distribution of different types of horse across Europe. They were greatly impressed by the native British breeds and improved on these, particularly the Welsh ponies. It was during sustained Roman occupation of Britain (c. 43–410 C.E.) that the heavier Welsh Cob is thought to have been developed, and it was also at this time that the magnificent Friesian horse was introduced to British stock, when it was brought over with Friesian laborers to work on the construction of Hadrian’s Wall (c. 122). The Romans came across good horse stock when they conquered southern Italy, and even more so in their conquests of Spain and Numidia, an ancient Berber kingdom in North Africa. Spanish or Iberian horses and those of North Africa have had one of the most significant influences on modern breeds. The Roman Empire relied on its horses for long distance transportation of soldiers and supplies and for the delivery of important messages. Their horses had to be tough, fast, and strong; they developed horses of heavier weight and size, the predecessors to the modern draft horse, and horses of incredible speed, which were used in chariot and ridden races.

Across Central Asia, nomadic cultures improved on their horses, too, although they remained small in stature and unprepossessing to look at. Appearance was not a primary objective: these people needed horses to sustain their way of life, and, as such, the horses were bred as tough, fast, and able to subsist on small rations in a harsh environment. Warring tribes plagued the borders of China, which led both to the building of the fortification walls (The Great Wall) along the northern border and to the Chinese implementing their own systematic horse breeding program. The Chinese made enormous advances in horse harnessing, including developing the breast strap harnessing system for use in driving horses and the single horse hitch with lateral shafts. They were the first to drive in tandem and to develop the stirrup. The actual ancient likeness of Chinese horses can be seen in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang (259–210 B.C.E.). Within the tomb, around six hundred life-sized terracotta horses with carriages and soldiers were discovered. The horses bear much in common with Mongolian stock, although are marginally taller, and appear to be well fed and strongly built.

In the middle of the second century B.C.E., there was a concerted (and bloody) effort to improve Chinese horses under the rule of the Emperor Wu Ti (141–87 B.C.E.). He embarked on several missions to “obtain” large numbers of the much sought-after “Heavenly Horses” of Ferghana. These horses are believed to have been the ancient Turkmenian horse and were quality desert animals with a great turn of speed. Improving the quality of the Chinese horse was necessary both to aid military endeavors and for transport, as well as for entertainment purposes. Breeding exercises reached a peak during the Tang dynasty (618–907). By this time, the Chinese silk trade was well established, and horses were frequently traded for Chinese silk and tea, which saw the introduction of “foreign” horses into the Chinese horse industry. The founders of the Tang dynasty had intermarried with nomadic tribespeople who had become integrated into society. With the horse of central importance to the nomads, this value was in turn transferred onto the Tang, and it became the most horse-oriented period of Chinese history.

Horses from Ferghana and other Central Asian states were used on the mostly Mongolian-derived stock of the Chinese to improve the quality and size of the horses. It was also during this period that polo was introduced to China, possibly by traveling dignitaries from Persia. Horses became not only a means to an end for battle and transport, but suddenly they were also prized for their looks, elegance, speed, and ability to play polo. Surviving pottery models of Tang dynasty horses reveal a horse of great beauty, quite heavy through its frame, but light in the leg, and with a well-set and carried head and neck. Their tack was elaborate, and the horses were often decorated with ornate breast straps and cruppers in a manner not dissimilar to that seen in European horse equipment of the Middle Ages.

While the Tang dynasty flourished in China, farther west the Moorish invasions were sweeping across Europe. The threat of domination by the Islamic Empire led to a rapid turn around in floundering European cavalry tactics and, as a consequence, to the development of an entirely new warhorse, discussed in Chapter Two.