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Chapter 6

PROGRAMMATIC CHANGES

What men get out of Oxford is like what they get from most other opportunities, pretty proportioned to what they put into it: the eye sees that it has brought with it the power of seeing, and students learn mostly only the answers to questions which they already have in their minds. More than most universities is this true of Oxford. Here, it may truly be said, is God's plenty in the way of educational opportunity; but here also the student is left in the utmost degree of freedom to take or to leave, according to his choice. Good things are not forced upon him. He must have the will to take, he must know what he wants, and he must be wise enough not to try to seize too much.

Frank Aydelotte, American Rhodes Scholarships

Reforms

The War of 1914 marked a stunning turning point in world history. It shattered the confidence that Europeans and Americans had in their rationality and their moral and cultural superiority. The “White Man” had shown that he could be just as savage as any other people on the globe. A sense of disillusionment and anxiety replaced the naive optimism of the belle époque, and colonial peoples around the world began to speak of independence. By 1919 Europe could no longer deny that the United States and Japan had achieved Great Power status. The confusion of the war helped pave the way for Lenin's victory in Russia in the fall of 1917. Moreover, the real or imagined injustices of the Versailles Peace Settlement watered the seeds of Fascism and Nazism.

Fittingly, the period from 1917 to 1920 also brought revolutionary changes for Oxford and for Rhodes Scholars. In 1917 the university voted to establish a full-fledged doctoral program for the D.Phil. degree. This represented a huge step, for previously the university had gloried in its undergraduate tutorial system. More than the establishment of the B.Litt. and B.Sc. degrees in the 1890s, the creation of the D.Phil. signaled Oxford's acknowledgment that a world-class university must promote research as well as teaching.

The change also resulted from the complaints of Rhodes Scholars and other Americans, who bemoaned the lack of a doctoral degree that would be meaningful for their careers back home. The approaching end of the war was a perfect time to bring an end to this criticism. Since 1914 virtually no Americans had crossed the Atlantic to study in German universities. To prevent them from going there after the return of peace, Oxford hurriedly established its D.Phil.¹

Another major change came in 1920, with the granting of full and equal status to the five women's colleges. Henceforth, women received the same degrees as men. Of course, decisions made on paper did not automatically translate into actions and attitudes. The women's colleges were “poor sisters” in terms of their financial resources and esteem. Official equality also did not mean coeducation. Women and men still sat apart in the lecture halls. Only in the 1970s did some of the undergraduate men's and women's colleges start to admit members of the opposite gender.

For Rhodes Scholarships there were also innovations during this period. In 1918 the Rhodes Trust appointed Frank Aydelotte to serve as its secretary in the United States. By 1925 similar national secretaries were selected in all the British dominions and colonies. Henceforth, Aydelotte and the other secretaries would supervise the direction of the program in their respective constituencies. This included advertising, public relations, recruitment of applicants, supervision of the selection process, and advisement of new Rhodes Scholars.

Due to his devotion to the task plus the fact that more than half of all Rhodes Scholars were Americans, Aydelotte soon came to play a role almost as important as those of Parkin and Wylie in the administration of the program. On his own initiative, since 1914, Aydelotte had revived both the quarterly journal (renaming it The American Oxonian) and the alumni association. When he was appointed American Secretary in 1918 he was a professor of English at M.I.T. In 1921 he assumed the presidency of Swarthmore College. At that time he handed over the editorship of the magazine to another former scholar, Tucker Brooke (1904), but he remained American Secretary until 1952. For nearly four decades he was, in effect, “Mr. Rhodes Scholar” in the United States.²

One of the first things that he did as Secretary was institute a new method of selection. He was unhappy with the low number of applicants and the overall quality of those selected – though, of course, he himself had been among them. Starting in 1919 the selection committees that he appointed in each of the states consisted of former Rhodes Scholars. They replaced the college presidents and governors who had done the job since 1904. He thought former scholars would be better able to choose candidates who would enjoy the social experience and succeed academically. Also, former Rhodes Scholars would be more likely to promote the program and increase the number of applicants. To ensure that the program did not become too much like a closed society or cult, he always chose as committee chair a non-Rhodes Scholar. This was usually a prominent businessman, politician, or academic from each respective state. These changes soon produced desirable results, and national secretaries in Canada, Australia, and elsewhere soon adopted the same methods.³

Oxford itself was also responsible for the increase in applicants. The new D.Phil. could be used as a recruitment tool. Even more important, however, was the university's decision in 1919 to drop the qualifying examination required of all Rhodes Scholars. It had been the Greek section of the test that had scared away many potential candidates. Soon after Rhodes Scholars were freed from the “burden” of learning Greek, the university eliminated the requirement for all students.⁴

This abandonment of one of the main pillars of its classical tradition was due in part to pressure from Rhodes Scholars, but it had been an issue of debate for more than two decades. Oxford's decision was also a reaction to what Cambridge had done. That “other” university had ended its Greek requirement for all students a few months earlier, and Oxford feared looking antiquarian and losing students to its competitor. Many in Oxford resented being forced by Cambridge to make this concession to the twentieth century. Cambridge had been debating this question for nearly fifty years, and yet Oxford dons condemned the “indecently prompt action” of their rival.⁵

Yet another concession by Oxford to Rhodes Scholars was the granting of senior status. Normally freshers admitted to the colleges were considered junior members until they passed the preliminary examinations at the end of their first year. After that, usually for the next two years, they were considered seniors. Prior to the First World War, Oxford granted immediate senior status to a handful of American Rhodes Scholars – those from a select few of the most prestigious universities. The list of universities was enlarged to about 150 in 1919, and by 1922 virtually every scholar who came to Oxford with a bachelor's degree from any American university was granted senior status.⁶

This change was important both socially and academically. Socially, it meant that they escaped some of the snubbing to which freshers were subject. Academically, it meant that most scholars could now obtain a B.A. in two years instead of three. This would permit him to return sooner to the United States to enter a career or graduate school. Or, even more frequently, it permitted him to spend his third year in Oxford pursuing an advanced degree. Getting such a late start on an advanced degree meant that a scholar would complete his thesis after returning to the United States or that he would have to use his own financial resources for an additional year or two in Oxford.

This period also witnessed changes in the central administration of the program. Francis Wylie remained as Oxford Secretary until 1931, when he was succeeded by C.K. Allen. Allen had been Professor of Jurisprudence at University College and would hold his new post until 1952. Through the 1920s and 1930s the Secretary's powers and responsibilities grew. This was partly due to the retirement of George Parkin in 1920. By that time the program was firmly established, and thus there was no longer a need for an “Organizing Secretary.” The Rhodes Trustees continued to maintain their headquarters in London. In 1919 they appointed one of themselves to the position of General Secretary. That person would supervise the management of the endowment funds and make decisions on broad policy issues.⁷ Increasingly the Oxford Secretary handled daily affairs and corresponded with Aydelotte and the other national secretaries.

The end of the decade also witnessed some important developments. As noted above, the granting of senior status made it possible for many scholars to obtain a B.A., B.Sc., or B.Litt. – but not a D.Phil. – in two years. Nonetheless, many were dragging out their studies to three years. In many cases this was because they did not study hard enough in their first two. To encourage all scholars to work harder, Francis Wylie gradually made the scholarship into a two-year program.⁸ One could apply for a third year only by demonstrating its necessity. In most cases the extension was granted. This was especially true for students who had completed a B.A. and wanted to go on for an additional degree, or for students pursuing a D.Phil. In the 1930s most scholars remained for a third year, but in later decades most chose to return home after the second.

An event of particular importance occurred in 1929. This was the gala opening of Rhodes House. About two hundred former scholars from around the world, half of them Americans, returned to Oxford to participate in the celebrations. They were joined by dignitaries like the Prince of Wales, Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, and the Archbishop of Canterbury.⁹

Situated on South Parks Road, near the heart of the university area, this imposing edifice was designed by Herbert Baker, who had been Cecil Rhodes' friend and architect in South Africa. Aesthetically, the building was not universally admired. A quarter-century after it was built, the head of the trustees could find no warmer words of praise than “imposing Cotswold pile.”¹⁰ What it lacked in beauty, it made up for in size. It was designed to serve several functions. It became the residence of the Oxford Secretary. Up to then Francis Wylie had conducted all of his business from his home. Now he and his wife would have spacious living accommodations plus several rooms for storing all the records of the program. The Secretary now also had facilities for entertaining the current scholars. Each fall there would be a formal dinner for new scholars and each summer a grand affair for those about to go down. In addition, Rhodes House was a place where scholars could listen to guest lecturers. The building contained several impressive meeting rooms and halls, but what most impressed many visitors was the fact that the building possessed eight fully modern toilets. Part of the structure was set aside as a branch library of the Bodleian. Rhodes House Library quickly became the chief repository for most books relating to the United States and the British Commonwealth. Finally, Rhodes House was a gift to the city and the university as a whole. Many of its rooms were open to the public, and the university began to use it for various meetings and conferences. In keeping with the magnificence of his new surroundings, the Oxford Secretary now acquired a second title: Warden of Rhodes House.

One final change came in the 1920s. Despite the inclusion of former scholars on the selection committees and an increase in the applicant pool, the academic record of American Rhodes Scholars improved only marginally. Frank Aydelotte gradually came to discern what he believed to be the major flaw. It still lay in the selection process itself. Cecil Rhodes had wanted scholars to come from each state of the Union, thus guaranteeing the widest geographical distribution. This meant, however, that smallest states, in terms of population, produced just as many Rhodes Scholars as the largest states. Inevitably, the applicant pool in North Dakota, Nevada, and Idaho was much smaller than in states like New York, Pennsylvania, and California. In the 1920s there were still some instances of committees in the less populated states deciding that no candidate was worthy; thus some slots went unfilled. Worse than that, some committees, when faced with mediocre candidates, went ahead and made appointments anyway. Aydelotte reported that a few Oxford colleges had become upset with the caliber of these men and were threatening to reject all future scholars from those states.¹¹

In the mid-1920s Aydelotte began to float an idea that George Parkin had first mentioned years earlier. He wanted to make sure that each appointment came from a sufficiently large applicant pool. In 1929 he finally proposed his idea to the Rhodes Trustees and to the Association of American Rhodes Scholars.¹² The result, approved by both organizations, was the district plan. This new scheme involved a departure from Rhodes' will, and thus required an Act of Parliament for authorization. Both Houses gave their assent.

Beginning in 1930, for what would be the class of 1931, the United States would be divided into eight regional districts. Each of these consisted of six states.¹³ There were still some glaring differences in population between the districts. Nevertheless, even the regions in the western half of the country would now produce enough candidates to allow committees to choose men of the highest quality-or so it was hoped.

The new selection procedure was now split into two stages. An applicant first applied to his state committee. The latter selected two candidates who would progress to the district level. The district committee would then interview the twelve finalists – two from each state. After a day of interviewing, the committee would then inform four of the anxious twelve that they had been chosen. The eight districts thus combined to produce thirty-two scholars each year. All this took place within one week, usually in early December.

The district plan might seem justifiable and non-controversial to an outside observer. However, it met with howls of protest at the time and continues to meet some objections today. Though most former Rhodes Scholars who participated in the 1929 vote gave it their approval, there was a vocal core of opposition. Some argued that the novelty was objectionable because it violated Rhodes' will. Defenders of the reform, however, countered that it maintained Rhodes' desire for geographical distribution and bolstered Rhodes' aim of attracting the “best men.” Other critics lambasted it because it was yet another slander against the quality of earlier appointees. Numerous scholars from the initial years were getting fed up with being told that they had not been good enough for Oxford.

Finally, some adversaries claimed that the new system would benefit larger states at the expense of smaller ones. There was some truth to this. Formerly, all states had been on an equal footing. In the district plan, however, the final committee could chose a total of four scholars from the six states represented. This meant that at least two states would not produce a scholar that year. Furthermore, if the committee chose two candidates from a single state this would eliminate yet another state.

The reform's proponents, on the other hand, pointed out that it could in some cases favor the less populous states. Two of the candidates chosen by a district might just as well be from Rhode Island or Arizona as from a demographically larger state like Florida or Ohio. The final decision would depend on the caliber of the twelve finalists each year. Indeed, as Aydelotte was able to demonstrate within a few years, the smaller states, proportionate to their population, did outperform the larger ones in producing winning candidates.¹⁴

Growing Popularity

The end of the war produced a veritable flood of American and other Rhodes Scholars into Oxford. The appointment of scholars had continued between 1914 and 1918, but few of them went to Oxford. Most scholars in the dominions and colonies entered the armed forces to fight for the British Empire. The situation of the Americans was different. Most of those who were already in Oxford in 1914 stayed there to finish their work. Some obtained exemptions from part of their degree requirements so that they could take their exams early and return home. Newly appointed Americans were advised not to go to Oxford, and most of them accepted that advice. Not knowing when the war would end, Parkin stopped all Americans from “coming up” in the fall of 1918.

The result was that by 1919 there were a couple of hundred American and other Rhodes Scholars who had been forced to leave Oxford early or who had never come at all. The trustees decided in 1919 to allow all of these “war” scholars to take up their scholarships if they wished, and several did so in 1919 or 1920. The German scholarships, however, remained abolished. Only in 1929 were they re-established. In 1920 one new scholarship was created – for Malta.¹⁵ In addition, several extra Rhodes Scholars from all constituencies were appointed in the classes of 1919, 1920, and 1921.

Many of the scholars who had postponed coming up were in their mid- to late twenties by the time they reached Oxford. They were unusual in another respect too. Dozens of them had married during the war. After much soul-searching, the trustees decided to contravene Rhodes' will. These men were permitted to take up their scholarships and to bring their wives, and in numerous cases, their children, with them. Francis Wylie and his wife did their best to help these families find appropriate housing in the city. However, Wylie could never completely adjust to this novelty. He later wrote:

It was a distracted life the married Rhodes Scholars lived, torn, as they were bound to be, between the rival claims of wife, Schools and College. They could satisfy any two of these; but not, to the full, all three. I remember meeting one of them wheeling a perambulator down one of Oxford's dreariest streets, his wife being busy with a second baby. He was a first-rate man, and did in fact get a First: but, beyond an occasional game of football, he could seldom escape from his student nursemaid existence. I felt glad that Mr. Rhodes could not see that pram.¹⁶

The rise in the number of applicants in the 1920s resulted partly from the changes mentioned above. The increase also reflected the favorable word-of-mouth advertising by the hundreds of former Rhodes Scholars who were now active in their careers. Nearly all Oxford veterans were reporting that the experience was enriching and broadening, if not always “fun.” Dozens of these former scholars were teaching in public high schools or exclusive prep schools. By 1920 more than two hundred were professors at colleges and universities. These teachers were in a perfect position to encourage bright students to apply. Thus, from the 1920s to the present day, probably more than half of all Rhodes Scholars have taken courses from former scholars. Don Price (1932), for example, was inspired to apply because two of his English literature professors at Vanderbilt – John Crowe Ransom and Robert Penn Warren (1928) – had won the award.¹⁷ Daniel Boorstin (1934) learned about the scholarships from one of his Yale professors, F.O. Matthiessen (1923).¹⁸

Whereas prior to the war the number of applicants had hovered around one hundred per year, in the 1920s it averaged about four hundred and in the 1930s approximately six hundred.¹⁹ The popularity of the scholarships is also indicated in two other ways. Already in this period there were several cases of the awards being won by sons or younger brothers of former scholars. Obviously the new winners would not have applied if they had not heard favorable reports from their family members. Some examples include the three Morley brothers already cited, Clayton and Byron White (1935 and 1938), Don and Karl Price (1932 and 1937), and Matthew Brown (1908), father of Gerald Brown (1938). There were at least a half-dozen other similar cases prior to the Second World War. In most instances the sons and younger brothers even entered the same colleges as their predecessors, such as the Morleys at New College and the Whites at Hertford.

The popularity of the scholarships is also revealed by the fact that many college sophomores and juniors sought advice on how to prepare themselves so that by the time they were seniors they met the criteria for winning. Though no statistics are available, it is also evident that dozens of applicants who failed to win on their first try applied again a year later. They spent the intervening year in graduate school or in jobs, often working on projects that would impress the selection committees. Several of these applicants did win on their second or even their third tries.²⁰

What did the scholars of the interwar period discover once they arrived in Oxford? That will be the topic of the next two chapters.

NOTES

^1. Harrison, Twentieth Century, 6, 15; Aydelotte, American Rhodes Scholarships, 57. Oxford, and nowadays a handful of other British universities, uses the term “D.Phil.” instead of “Ph.D.” Not to be outdone by its adversary, Cambridge established a Ph.D. program in 1920.

^2. Items by and about Aydelotte in TAO are too numerous to list. For his obituary see 44 (1957): 49-62. Blanshard, Aydelotte, is thorough and valuable, though too partial toward its subject.

^3. TAO, 6 (1919): 128-29; Aydelotte, American Rhodes Scholarships, 27-29, 38.

^4. Harrison, Twentieth Century, 29,37; TAO, 6 (1919): 38, 43, 49, 129.

^5. TAO, 6 (1919): 51.

^6. Elton, First Fifty Years, 112-13; TAO, 8 (1921): 102-6.

^7. Between 1919 and 1925 several persons served as General Secretary. From 1925 to 1939 Philip Kerr (later Lord Lothian) held the post. He was succeeded by Lord Elton (1939-1959). Since 1959 the position of General Secretary has been held by the Oxford Secretary.

^8. Elton, First Fifty Years, 23; TAO, 16 (1929): 120-21; 19 (1932): 164-65.

^9. TAO, 16 (1929): 1-3, 163-91.

^10. Elton, First Fifty Years, 26.

^11. Aydelotte, American Rhodes Scholarships, 30.

^12. In 1928 the word “alumni” was dropped from the association and the organization acquired a constitution and board of directors. See TAO, 15 (1928): 79-96, 179, 243.

^13. Applicants from Washington, DC, had already for several years been placed with those from Maryland.

^14. Aydelotte, American Rhodes Scholarships, 31-37; TAO, 15 (1928): 64-65; 16 (1929): 143-48; 17 (1930): 52-53, 63, 69-97; 25 (1938): 87-89, 157-62.

^15. At first Malta produced one scholar every three years. After 1942 it was one per year.

^16. Elton, First Fifty Years, 108. Also see TAO, 6 (1919): 123-25; 7 (1920): 152-54.

^17. Don K. Price, “A Yank at Oxford: Specializing for Breadth,” American Scholar, 55 (1986): 195.

^18. Boorstin interview, 9 June 1994.

^19. TAO, 10 (1923): 7-8; 11 (1924): 56; 18 (1931): 1-3; 22 (1935): 138.

^20. TAO, 21 (1934): 187-92; 50 (1963): 135; Laurence A. Crosby and Frank Aydelotte, eds., Oxford of Today: A Manual for Prospective Rhodes Scholars (New York, 1922).