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DRINKABLES. Arabic ashribah (اشربة‎). There is a chapter in the Traditions devoted to this subject, and entitled Bābu ʾl-Ashribah. The example of Muḥammad in his habit of drinking, having influenced the Eastern world in its habits, the following traditions are noticeable. Anas says, “the Prophet has forbidden drinking water standing,” and that he used to take breath three times in drinking; and would say drinking in this way cools the stomach, quenches the thirst, and gives health and vigour to the body.

Ibn ʿAbbās says the Prophet forbade drinking water from the mouth of a leather bag.

Umm Salimah says, “the Prophet said, He who drinks out of a silver cup drinks of hell fire.” (Mishkāt, book xix. c. iii.)

DRINKING VESSELS. There are four drinking vessels which Muslims were forbidden by their Prophet to drink out of (Mishkāt, bk. i., c. i.): ḥantam, a “green vessel”; dubbāʾ, a large gourd hollowed out; naqīr, a cup made from the hollowed root of a tree; muzaffat, a vessel covered with pitch, or with a glutinous substance. These four kinds of vessels seem to have been used for drinking wine, hence the prohibition.

When a dog drinks from a vessel used by man, it should be washed seven times. (Mishkāt, book iii. c. ix. pt. i.)

DROWNING. Arabic g͟haraq (غرق‎). It is a strange anomaly in Muḥammadan law, according to the teaching of Abū Ḥanīfah, that if a person cause the death of another by immersing him under water until he die, the offence does not amount to murder, and retaliation (qiṣāṣ) is not incurred. The arguments of the learned divine are as follows: First, water is analogous to a small stick or rod, as is seldom or ever used in murder. Now, it is said in the Traditions that death produced by a rod is only manslaughter, and as in that a fine is merely incurred, so here likewise. Secondly, retaliation requires the observance of a perfect equality; but between drowning and wounding there is no equality, the former being short of the latter with regard to damaging the body. [MURDER.]

DRUNKENNESS. Shurb (شرب‎) denotes the state of a person who has taken intoxicating liquor, whilst sukr (سكر‎) implies a state of drunkenness. Wine of any kind being strictly forbidden by the Muslim law, no distinction is made in the punishment of a wine-drinker and a drunkard. If a Muslim drink wine, and two witnesses testify to his having done so, or if his breath smell of wine, or if he shall himself confess to having taken wine, or if he be found in a state of intoxication, he shall be beaten with eighty stripes, or, in the case of a slave, with forty stripes. (Hidāyah, vol. ii. p. 57; Mishkāt, bk. xv. c. iv.) [KHAMR.]

DRUZES. A heretical mystic sect of Muḥammadans, which arose about the beginning of the eleventh century in the mountains of Syria. They are now chiefly found in the districts of Lebanon, and in the neighbourhood of Damascus. They were founded by al-Ḥakīm, the fanatical K͟halīfah of the Fāt̤imite race, who reigned at Cairo, assisted by two Persians named Hamzah and al-Darāzī, from the latter of whom the sect derives its name.

De Sacy, in his Exposé de la Religion des Druzes, gives the following summary of their belief:—

“To acknowledge only one God, without seeking to penetrate the nature of His being and of His attributes; to confess that He can neither be comprehended by the senses nor defined by words; to believe that the Divinity has shown itself to men at different epochs, under a human form, without participating in any of the weaknesses and imperfections of humanity; that it has shown itself at last, at the commencement of the fifth age of the Hejira, under the figure of Hakim Amr Allah; that that was the last of His manifestations, after which there is none other to be expected; that Hakim disappeared in the year 411 of the Hejira, to try the faith of His servants, to give room for the apostasy of hypocrites, and of those who had only embraced the true religion from the hope of worldly rewards; that in a short time he would appear again, full of glory and of majesty, to triumph over all his enemies, to extend His empire over all the earth, and to make His faithful worshippers happy for ever; to believe that Universal Intelligence is the first of God’s creatures, the only direct production of His omnipotence; that it has appeared upon the earth at the epoch of each of the manifestations of the Divinity, and has finally appeared since the time of Hakim under the figure of Hamza, son of Ahmad; that it is by His ministry that all the other creatures have been produced; that Hamza only possesses the knowledge of all truth, that he is the prime minister of the true religion, and that he communicates, directly or indirectly, with the other ministers and with the faithful, but in different proportions, the knowledge and the grace which he receives directly from the Divinity, and of which he is the sole channel; that he only has immediate access to God, and acts as a mediator to the other worshippers of the Supreme Being; acknowledging that Hamza is he to whom Hakim will confide his sword, to make his religion triumph, to conquer all his rivals, and to distribute rewards and punishments according to the merits of each one; to know the other ministers of religion, and the rank which belongs to each of them; to give to each the obedience and submission which is their due; to confess that every soul has been created by the Universal Intelligence; that the number of men is always the same; and that souls pass successively into different bodies; that they are raised by their attachment to truth to a superior degree of excellence, or are degraded by neglecting or giving up religious meditation; to practise the seven commandments which the religion of Hamza imposes upon its followers, and which principally exacts from them the observance of truth, charity towards their brethren, the renunciation of their former religion, the most entire resignation and submission to the will of God; to confess that all preceding religions have only been types more or less perfect of true religion, that all their ceremonial observances are only allegories, and that the manifestation of true religion requires the abrogation of every other creed. Such is the abridgment of the religious system taught in the books of the Druzes, of which Hamza is the author, and whose followers are called Unitarians.”

There is a very full and correct account of the religious belief of the Druzes in the Researches into the Religions of Syria, by the Rev. J. Wortabet, M.D. In this work Dr. Wortabet gives the following Catechism of the Druzes, which expresses their belief with regard to Christianity:—

“Q. What do ye say concerning the gospel which the Christians hold?

“A. That it is true; for it is the sayings of the Lord Christ, who was Salman el Pharisy during the life of Mohammed, and who is Hamzeh the son of Ali—not the false Christ who was born of Mary, for he was the son of Joseph.

“Q. Where was the true Christ when the false Christ was with the disciples?

“A. He was among the disciples. He uttered the truths of the gospel and taught Christ, the son of Joseph, the institutes of the Christian religion; but when Jesus disobeyed the true Christ, he put hatred into the hearts of the Jews, so that they crucified him.

“Q. What became of him after the crucifixion?

“A. They put him into a grave, and the true Christ came and stole him, and gave out the report among men that Christ had risen out of the dead.

“Q. Why did he act in this manner?

“A. That he might establish the Christian religion, and confirm its followers in what he had taught them.

“Q. Why did he act in such a manner as to establish error?

“A. So that the Unitarians should be concealed in the religion of Jesus and none of them might be known.

“Q. Who was it that came from the grave and entered among the disciples when the doors were shut?

“A. The living Christ, who is immortal, even Hamzeh, the son and slave of our Lord.

“Q. Who brought the gospel to light, and preached it?

“A. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.”

“Q. Why did not the Christians acknowledge the unity of God?

“A. Because God had not so decreed.

“Q. Why does God permit the introduction of evil and infidelity?

“A. Because He chooses to mislead some from, and to guide others to, the truth.

“Q. If infidelity and error proceed from Him, why does he punish those who follow them?

“A. Because when He deceived them, they did not obey Him.

“Q. How can a deluded man obey, when he is ignorant of the true state of the case?

“A. We are not bound to answer this question, for God is not accountable to his creatures for his dealings with them.”

DUʿĀʾ (دعاء‎). “Prayer.” The word duʿāʾ is generally used for supplication, as distinguished from ṣalāt, or the liturgical form of prayer, e.g. Qurʾān, Sūrah xiv. 42: “O my Lord! make me and my posterity to be constant in prayer (ṣalāt). O our Lord! and accept my supplication (duʿāʾ). [PRAYERS.]

DUʿĀʾ-I-MAʾS̤ŪR (دعــاء مــاثــور‎). Lit. “Recorded prayer.” A term used for prayers which were offered up by the Prophet, and have been handed down in the Traditions.

DUʿĀʾU ʾL-QUNŪT (دعاء القنوت‎), called also the Qunūtu ʾl-Witr, “The prayer said standing.” A form of prayer recited after the qarāʾah in the night prayer. Recited by some sects in the early morning. It is found in the Traditions. It is as follows:—

“O God, we seek help from Thee, and forgiveness of sins.

“We believe in Thee and trust in Thee.

“We praise Thee. We thank Thee. We are not unthankful.

“We expel, and we depart from him who does not obey Thee.

“We serve Thee only, and to Thee do we pray.

“We seek Thee, we prostrate ourselves and we serve Thee.

“We hope for Thy mercy. We fear Thy punishments.

“Surely Thy judgments are upon the infidels.”

DUALISM. Professor Palmer, following the remarks of al-Baiẓāwī the commentator, says there is a protest against the dualistic doctrine that Light and Darkness were two co-eternal principles, in the Qurʾān, Sūrah vi. 1: “Praised be God who created the heavens and the earth, and brought into being the Darkness and the Light.” (Palmer’s Qurʾān, vol. i. p. 115; al-Baiẓāwī in loco.)

AD-DUK͟HĀN (الـدخان‎). “The Smoke.” The title of the XLIVth chapter of the Qurʾān, in which the words occur (9th verse): “Expect thou the day when the heaven shall bring a palpable smoke.”

DULDUL (دلدل‎). The name of the Prophet’s mule which he gave to ʿAlī.

DUMB, The. Arabic abkam (ابكم‎), pl. bukm.

The intelligible signs of a dumb person suffice to verify his bequests and render them valid; he may also execute a marriage contract, or give a divorce, or execute a sale or purchase, or sue or incur punishment by signs, but he cannot sue in a case of qiṣāṣ, or retaliation for murder. This rule does not apply to a person who has been deprived of speech, but merely to one who has been born dumb. (Hidāyah, vol. iv. p. 568.) A dumb person can also acknowledge and deny the faith by a sign.

AD-DURRATU ʾL-BAIẒĀʾ (الـدرة البيضاء‎). Lit. “The pearl of light.” A term used by Ṣūfī mystics to express the ʿāqlu ʾl-awwal, the first intelligence which God is said to have created at the beginning of the animate world. (ʿAbdu ʾr-Razzāq’s Dictionary of Ṣūfī Terms.)

DURŪD (درود‎); a Persian word. Arabic aṣ-Ṣalāt (الصلوة‎). A benediction; imploring mercy. A part of the stated prayer, recited immediately after the Tashahhud, whilst in the same posture. It is as follows: “O God, have mercy on Muḥammad and on his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham and on his descendants! Thou art to be praised, and Thou art great! O God, bless Muḥammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless Abraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great.” The merits of this form of prayer are said to be very great; for, according to Anas, the Prophet said, “He who recites it will have blessings on his head ten times, ten sins will be forgiven, and he will be exalted ten steps.” (Mishkāt, book iv. c. xvii.) [PRAYER.]

DŪZAK͟H (دوزخ‎). The Persian word for hell. [HELL.]

DYER. According to the Imām Abū Ḥanīfah, a dyer of cloth is at liberty to detain it until he receive his hire for dyeing it; and if the cloth perish in his hands whilst it is detained, he is not responsible. (Hidāyah, vol. iii. 320.)

DYING, The. Very special instructions are given in Muslim books as to the treatment of the dying. In the Durru ʾl-Muk͟htār (p. 88), the friends of the dying are recommended, if possible, to turn the head of the dying person towards Makkah; but if this be not convenient, his feet should be placed in that direction and his head slightly raised. The Kalimatu ʾsh-Shahādah should then be recited, and the Sūrah Yā-Sīn (xxxvi.) and Sūratu ʾr-Raʿd (xiii.) should be read from the Qurʾān. When the spirit has departed from the body, the mouth should be tied up and the eyes closed and the arms straightened, and the body should be perfumed, and no unclean person should be suffered to approach the corpse. Immediate steps should then be taken for the washing of the corpse. [DEATH.]