Theorizing Crisis Communication

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Timothy L. Sellnow. Theorizing Crisis Communication

Foundations of Communication Theory

Timothy L. Sellnow

Table of Contents

List of Tables

Guide

Pages

Acknowledgments

Foreword

References

1 Introduction to Crisis Communication

Defining Crisis

Defining Communication

Plan for This Book

Conclusion

2 Theorizing about Crisis and Crisis Communication

Critiquing Theory

Conclusion

3 Theories of Communication and Warning

Detection of Risks

Warnings

Hear-Confirm-Understand-Decide-Respond Model

Applications of the Hear-Confirm-Understand-Decide-Respond Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Hear-Confirm-Understand-Decide-Respond Model

Protective Action Decision Model

Applications of the PADM

Strengths and Weaknesses of the PADM

Integrated Model of Food Recall

Applications of the Integrated Model of Food Recall

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Integrated Model of Food Recall

Emerging Warning Systems

Conclusion

4 Theories of Communication and Crisis Development

Assumptions of Stage Models

Three-Stage Model

Applications of the Three-Stage Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of theThree-Stage Model

Fink’s Four-Stage Cycle

Applications of Fink’s Four-Stage Cycle

Strengths and Weaknesses of Fink’s Four-Stage Cycle

Turner’s Six-Stage Sequence ofFailure in Foresight

Applications of Turner’s Six-Stage Sequence of Failure in Foresight

Strengths and Weaknesses of Turner’s Six-Stage Sequence of Failure in Foresight

Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication

Applications of CERC

Strengths and Weaknesses of CERC

Conclusion

5 Theories of Communication and Crisis Outcomes

Organizational Learning

Experience

Direct Experience

Indirect Experience

Meaningful Change

Structural Change

Attitudinal Change

Healing

Explanation

Forgetting

Remembering

Applications of Organizational Learning

Strengths and Weaknesses ofOrganizational Learning

Sensemaking

Cosmology Episode

Enactment

Selection

Retention

Applications of Sensemaking

Strengths and Weaknesses of Sensemaking

Organizational Legitimacy

Legitimacy Gaps

Actional Legitimacy

Applications of Organizational Legitimacy

Strengths and Weaknesses ofOrganizational Legitimacy

Balance Theory

Applications of Balance Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Balance Theory

Stealing Thunder

Applications of Stealing Thunder

Strengths and Weaknesses of Stealing Thunder

Situational Crisis Communication Theory

Response Strategies

Evaluating Reputational Threat

Selecting a Crisis Response Strategy

Applications of SCCT

Strengths and Weaknesses of SCCT

Discourse of Renewal

Learning

Ethical Communication

Prospective Versus Retrospective Vision

Optimism

Engaging in Effective Organizational Rhetoric

Applications of Discourse of Renewal

Strengths and Weaknesses of Discourse of Renewal

Conclusion

6 Theories of Communication and Emergency Coping and Response

Assumptions of Communication andEmergency Response

Chaos Theory and EmergentSelf-Organization

Applications of Chaos Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Chaos Theory

Theories of Communication and Crisis Coordination

Applications of Coordination Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Coordination Theory

Communication and Community Resilience

Applications of Community Resilience

Strengths and Weaknesses of Community Resilience

Four-Channel Model of Communication

Applications of the Four-Channel Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Four-Channel Model

Integrated Crisis Mapping Model

Applications of the ICM

Strengths and Weaknesses of ICM

Conclusion

7 Theories of Crisis Communication and Legacy Media

The Legacy Mass Media

News Framing Theory

Applications of News Framing Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of News Framing Theory

Focusing Events and Agenda Setting

Blame

Normal Versus New Events

Learning

Applications of Focusing Events

Strengths and Weaknesses of Focusing Events

Exemplification Theory

Applications of Exemplification Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Exemplification Theory

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Applications of Uses and Gratifications Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Uses and Gratifications Theory

Cultivation Theory

Applications of Cultivation Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultivation Theory

Media System Dependency Theory

Application of Media Systems Dependency Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Media Systems Dependency Theory

Crisis News Diffusion

Applications of Crisis News Diffusion

Strengths and Weaknesses of Crisis News Diffusion

Diffusion of Innovations

Application of Diffusion of Innovations

Strengths and Weaknesses of Diffusion of Innovations

Conclusion

8 Theories about Social Media and Crisis Communication

Social Information Processing Theory

Applications of SIPT

Strengths and Weaknesses of SIPT

Warranting Theory

Applications of Warranting Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Warranting Theory

The MAIN Model

Applications of the MAIN Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of the MAIN Model

Dialogic Theory of Public Relations

Applications of Dialogic Theory of Public Relations

Strengths and Weaknesses of Dialogic Theory of Public Relations

Social-Mediated Crisis Communication Model

Components of the SMCC Model

Applications of the SMCC Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of the SMCC Model

Emerging Theories of Social Media in Crisis Communication

Networked Crisis Communication Model

Risk Amplification Through Media Spread Model

Conclusion

9 Theories of Influence and Crisis Communication

Apologia

Reformative Strategies

Transformative Strategies

Postures of Self-Defense

Applications of Apologia

Strengths and Weaknesses of Apologia

Image Repair

Denial

Evading Responsibility

Reducing Offensiveness

Corrective Action

Mortification

Applications of Image Repair

Strengths and Weaknesses ofImage Repair

Kategoria

Increasing the Target’s Perceived Responsibility for the Act

Increasing the Perceived Offensiveness of the Act

Applications of Kategoria

Strengths and Weaknesses of Kategoria

Dramatism

Order

Pollution

Guilt

Purification

Redemption

The Pentad

Applications of Dramatism

Strengths and Weaknesses of Dramatism

Narrative Theory

Applications of Narrative Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Narrative Theory

Message Convergence Framework

Applications of Message Convergence Framework

Strengths and Weaknesses of Message Convergence Framework

Conclusion

10 Theories of Communication and Risk Management

Social Amplification of Risk Framework

Applications of SARF

Strengths and Weaknesses of SARF

Risk Information Seeking and Processing Model

Applications of the RISP Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of RISP

Mindfulness

Recategorization

Openness

Multiple Perspectives

Applications of Mindfulness

Strengths and Weaknesses of Mindfulness

High Reliability Organizations

Anticipation

Preoccupation with Failure

Reluctance to Simplify

Sensitivity to Operations

Containment

Commitment to Resilience

Deference to Expertise

Applications of HRO

Strengths and Weaknesses of HRO

The Precautionary Principle

Precautionary Discourse

Applications of the Precautionary Principle

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Precautionary Principle

Cultural Theory

Public Debate

Clumsy Solutions

Applications of Cultural Theory

Strengths and Weaknesses of Cultural Theory

The IDEA Model

Application of the IDEA Model

Strengths and Weaknesses of the IDEA Model

Conclusion

11 Theories of Crisis Communication and Ethics

Ethics

Crisis Communication as an Ethical Domain

Responsible Communication

Significant Choice

The Ethic of Care

Virtue Ethics

Justice

Applications of Moral Theory to Crisis

Conclusion

12 Applying Theories of Crisis Communication

Choosing a Theory

The Rationale for Asking Questions

Questions Focusing of Ontology

Questions Focusing on Axiology

Questions Focusing on Epistemology

Selecting a Data Set and Method

Selecting Literature for Review

Forming Conclusions and Implications of Research

The Practicality of Theory in Understanding Crisis Communication

Persistent Challenges

Invisible Success

Global Causation

Insufficient Instruction for Self-Protection

Persistent Opportunities

New Perspectives for Study

A Final Word

References

Index

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Series Editor

Marshall Scott Poole (University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana)

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Given this range of definitions, concepts, and complexity of communication, is it possible to fully define crisis communication? Crisis communication could simply be understood as the ongoing process of creating shared meaning among and between groups, communities, individuals, and agencies within the ecological context of a crisis for the purpose of preparing for and reducing, limiting, and responding to threats and harm. This definition points to the diversity of communicators – both senders and receivers – involved and the instrumental and functional elements of communication during a crisis. Beyond this definition, however, is the fact that communication processes are sensemaking methodologies allowing individuals, groups, communities, and agencies to co-create frameworks for understanding and action even within the highly uncertain, demanding, and threatening context of a crisis. These events shatter the fundamental sense of normalcy, stability, and predictability we all count on in living our daily lives. They are disruptive, confusing, shocking, and intense events and making sense of them and reestablishing some new normal requires communication. Crisis communication processes are also made significantly more complex by the diversity of audiences, cultures, backgrounds, experiences, new technologies, and forms of crises. In addition, effective communication in these cases can literally be a life and death matter. Understanding the role of communication in these events, therefore, is critical.

The effort to do so has been driven by dramatic crisis events and has involved several research traditions. In its earliest iteration, crisis communication practice was a subfield of public relations and was directed toward identifying strategies to protect organizations facing accusations of wrongdoing. One of the first professional practitioners of public relations, Ivy Lee, helped manage press coverage of the 1906 Pennsylvania Railroad disaster involving a passenger train derailing on a bridge in Atlantic City. The disaster caused more than 50 deaths (Hallahan, 2002; Heibert, 1966). The principles of crisis communication were drawn largely from anecdotal insights, “war stories,” and later more formalized case studies (Coombs, 2010, p. 23). Although these early principles of crisis communication were anecdotal and did not draw on any established theory, they laid the groundwork for subsequent investigations, which began to develop in the 1980s. More systematic case studies and the application of rhetorical theory added to the earlier principles of practice and a coherent field of crisis communication began to emerge (Lachlan et al., in press). Erikson’s (1976) examination of the Buffalo Creek disaster, Fink’s (1986) analysis of the Three Mile Island Disaster, Seeger’s (1986) analysis of the Challenger Disaster, and Snyder’s (1983) and Benson’s (1988) investigation of the Tylenol poisoning and subsequent responses helped developed the case study approach to crisis. Much of the work was still descriptive and critical and depended largely on descriptive and rhetorical methods (Benoit, 1995).

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