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Table of Contents

Foreword ix

Acknowledgements x

Introduction xiv

Chapter 1 Physical, biological and human background 1

Geology 1

Geological history 1

Volcanoes 7

Minerals 11

Soils 14

Climate 16

Palaeoclimate 16

Present climate 20

Vegetation 29

Palaeovegetation 29

Present vegetation 30

Fauna 34

Palaeofauna 34

Present fauna 37

Endangered species 50

Biogeography 54

Background to biogeography 54

Wallace's Line 59

Biogeographical differences within Sulawesi 68

People of Sulawesi 72

Prehistory 72

Impacts of prehistoric man 79

History 82

Present-day people 88

Present state of natural ecosystems 91

Chapter 2 Seashores 105

Introduction 105

Physical conditions 105

Tides 105

Surface currents 108

Salinity 109

Temperature 110

Dissolved oxygen and nutrients 110

Sediment 111

Oxygen within the sediment 112

Bacteria 113

Adaptations of the fauna 113

Mangrove forest vegetation 116

Composition 117

Zonation 124

Biomass and productivity 131

Other coastal vegetation 136

Pes-caprae formation 136

Barringtonia formation 137

Rocky shores 140

Fauna of sediment beaches 140

Open area communities 140

Shorebirds 144

Turtles 151

Maleo birds 155

Seabirds 159

Invertebrates of mangrove forest 162

Terrestrial fauna of mangrove forest 174

Fauna of beach forests, particularly coconut crabs 175

Fauna of rocky shores 181

Introduction 181

Functions and products of mangrove forest 185

Tambak fishponds 187

Mangrove forest management 192

Chapter 3 Estuaries, seagrass meadows and coral reefs 195

Estuaries 195

Water characteristics 195

Fauna 196

Primary productivity 201

Seagrass meadows 201

Seagrasses 201

Reproduction 206

Biomass, productivity and decomposition 207

Effects of development 208

Dugongs 210

Coral reefs 212

Importance and species richness 212

Structure and formation 213

Reef invertebrates 219

Reef fish 232

Reef algae and herbivores 238

Productivity and plankton 241

Causes of coral death and reef destruction 241

Coral reef fisheries 243

Coral reef survey techniques 246

Chapter 4 Freshwater ecosystems 257

Introduction 257

Lakes and rivers 258

Physical features 262

Water inputs and outputs 264

Water chemistry 266

Plants 268

Macrophytes 268

Phytoplankton 283

Fungi, bacteria and blue-green algae 284

Fauna 285

Zooplankton 286

Macro-invertebrates 287

Schistosomiasis and echinostomiasis of the Lindu valley 293

Fish 298

Aquatic reptiles 301

Water birds 305

Malili lakes system 308

Physical patterns in lakes 310

Temperature 310

Oxygen 311

Nutrients and conductivity 312

Light penetration 314

Stability 315

Biotic patterns in lakes 316

Physical patterns in rivers 317

Discharge 317

Shear stress 319

Riverbed particle size 320

Temperature 321

Dissolved oxygen and mineral nutrients 321

Biotic patterns in rivers 323

Current 323

Substratum 324

Temperature and dissolved

oxygen 324

Mineral nutrients 325

Biotic factors 325

Energy flow 325

Benthos dynamics 328

Fisheries 330

Management of macrophytes 336

Impacts of development 340

Industrial, domestic and agricultural pollution 340

Poisons, bombs and electric shocks 341

Forest clearance 342

Chapter 5 Lowland forests 343

Diversity 343

Structure and components 346

Characteristics 346

Layering 347

Basal area and biomass 350

Roots 350

Buttresses and trunks 351

Climbing and creeping plants 353

Epiphytes and epiphylls 356

Dynamics 359

Succession and growth cycle 359

Litterfall, nutrient cycling and productivity 365

Flower, fruit and leaf production 366

Herbivory 369

Seed dispersal and predation 379

Composition 385

Composition of mature-phase forest 385

Composition of pioneer- and building-phase forest 394

Animal communities 400

Soil and litter communities 400

Forest floor community 404

Lower and upper canopy communities 415

Comparison of mature- and pioneer-phase faunas 433

The effects of opening forest 434

General effects 434

Wider implications of forest conversion 437

Effects of selective logging on the forest 438

Effects of selective logging on soil and hydrology 440

Effects of selective logging on the fauna 442

Chapter 6 Specific lowland forest types 445

Introduction 445

Peatswamp forest 445

Formation and location 445

Vegetation 446

Fauna 449

Freshwater swamp forest 449

Physical conditions 449

Vegetation 450

Riverine forest 454

Vegetation 454

Fauna 457

Forest on ultrabasic soils 457

Soils 457

Vegetation 460

Fauna 466

Forest on limestone 468

Physical conditions 468

Soils 472

Hydrology 472

Vegetation 474

Effects of disturbance 478

Fauna 479

Monsoon forest 480

Vegetation 480

Fauna 486

The Palu valley: past and future 487

Chapter 7 Mountains 489

Introduction 489

Climate 489

Temperature 489

Relative humidity 491

Clouds 492

Rainfall 492

Ultra-violet radiation 493

Soils 494

Vegetation 495

Structure 495

Zonation 501

Characteristic plants 503

Selected mountains 511

Pollination and dispersal 515

Biomass and productivity 517

Mineral cycling 518

Volcanoes 520

Animals and their zonation 523

Invertebrates 523

Birds 526

Mammals 528

Effects of disturbance 533

Chapter 8 Caves 535

Introduction 535

Cave formation 539

Temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide 543

Characteristic animals and food chains 543

Effects of darkness 544

Echo-location 546

Roof community 549

Swiftlets 553

Floor community 553

Differences within and between caves 561

Effects of disturbance 561

Chapter 9 Agroecosystems 567

Characteristics 567

Swidden, shifting and intensive agriculture 570

Pest ecology and control 573

Rice fields 577

Introduction 577

Rice fields as an ecosystem 579

Insect pests on rice 581

Rats and their control 583

Rice field birds 585

Coconut and clove 588

Coconut 589

Clove 596

Cotton 598

Chapter 10 Urban ecology 601

Introduction 601

Gardens and streets 602

Vegetation 602

Birds 608

Bats 612

Walls 614

Ditches 617

Houses 620

Spiders and ants 620

Geckos 620

Possible urban ecology studies 621

Chapter 11 Resources and the future 625

Forestry 625

Watershed management 628

Implications of Island Biogeographic theory 631

Extinction and conservation 633

Genetic resources 637

Future scenarios 638

Drawing the line 638

Appendices 641

A. Interpretation of soil analysis data 641

B. Plant family abbreviations used in the text 642

C. Key to the trees of mangrove and estuarine areas 644

D. Key to seagrasses 646

E. Keys to the submerged and floating freshwater macrophytes 648

F. Key to tree ferns 652

G. Key to termites 654

H. Key to mudskippers 656

I. Key to toads and frogs 658

J. Key to house geckos 661

K. Key to parrots 662

L. Key to bat families 663

M. Key to fruit bats 664

N. Data sheet for coral reef monitoring 666

Notes 669

Bibliography 681

Index 727