Читать книгу The Moravians in Labrador - Unknown - Страница 3

The Moravian Mission in Labrador was attempted under circumstances scarcely less discouraging than those under which the brethren were enabled to achieve the moral conquest of Greenland, was attended with incidents still more romantic, and blest with a success equally remarkable. But it possesses a peculiar interest to British readers, having been commenced under the auspices of the British government, and promising a more extensive influence among tribes with whom British intercourse is likely to produce a wider and more intimate connection.

The Peninsula of Labrador extends from the 50th to the 61st deg. N.L. It is somewhat of a triangular form; bounded on the north by Hudson's Straits, and indented by Ungava Bay; on the east by the northern ocean; on the south by Canada and the Gulph of St Lawrence; and on the west by Hudson's and James' Bay, which last coast, by a kind of anomaly in nomenclature, has been called the East Main, from its situation to that great inland sea.

The German geographers do not appear to doubt, what some of our own have called in question, that the discovery and the name of this Peninsula, at least of its eastern shores, were owing to the Portuguese, Gaspar Cortereal, who, in the years 1500 and 1501, in an expedition fitted by the king to discover a western passage to India, reached the coast of Newfoundland about the 50th deg. N.L., and sailed northward to nearly the entrance into Hudson's Bay. This tract of country was originally called after its discoverer, Terra Cortereali, a name since superseded by that of Terra de Labrador—the land capable of cultivation. Davis Straits, here about one hundred miles broad, separates it from Greenland, whose southernmost point, Cape Farewell, lies in the same degree of latitude, [60 N.L.] with Cape Chudleigh, the northernmost extremity of Labrador. The Straits of Bellisle run between it and Newfoundland. The land along the shore is abrupt and precipitous, indented with many little creeks and vallies, surrounded by innumerable islands, and rendered extremely dangerous of access from the multitude of sunken rocks. The interior is mountainous, intersected by marshes, and abounding with streamlets and lakes.

Detached from the Arctic lands, this country ought to partake in some degree of the temperate cold regions, but whether owing to the elevation of its mountains, or the influence of the perpetual fogs that cover the neighbouring seas, it is as frozen a region as those to the west of Hudson's Bay; and though it lies some degrees farther south than Greenland, yet the cold during the long winter is far more severe, the thermometer being frequently 32° below 0° of Fahrenheit. Perhaps the immense quantity of drift ice which accumulates on the eastern shores, and which extends for so many miles out to sea, may have some influence on the temperature of the climate. The summer, on the other hand, during the short time that it lasts, is proportionally warmer, the thermometer rising from 70° to 80° above 0. Vegetation then proceeds with uncommon rapidity; the shrubs and plants expand as if by enchantment; and the country assumes the luxuriance and beauty of a European summer. Forests of pine and larch are scattered over the country, the trees of sufficient size to be used in building, or to be sawn into boards; there are also willows, birch, aspen, and alder, in considerable quantities.

The land animals are the same as those in Greenland. The rein-deer, this beautiful and useful creature, is found in considerable herds, but has not hitherto been domesticated, being only hunted for its flesh, which makes an agreeable variety of food; and its skin, which is an elegant and necessary article of clothing, as the fur is always richer in proportion to the intensity of the cold, against which it forms an excellent defence; they are hunted with dogs, and formerly used to be easily killed with the bow and arrow, but the introduction of fire arms has proved much more destructive. When hard-pressed, they soon take to the water, and swim so well that a four oared boat can scarcely come up with them, but an Esquimaux in his kaiak more readily overtakes them. Hares are tolerably plenty. The Arctic fox also is numerous; their skins are used for the purposes of commerce, and their flesh is esteemed preferable to that of the hare. Black bears are frequently killed, and are relished as food by the Esquimaux. But the most formidable among the tribes of these regions is the Polar bear, whose ferocity and courage render him an object of terror even to the well armed European. The dog is the most useful of the quadrupeds to the Esquimaux; he bears a strong resemblance to the wolf; is in height about the size of the Newfoundland, and is well furnished with a thick hairy coat, peculiarly adapted to the climate. As a hunter, his scent can trace the seal or the rein-deer at a considerable distance, and he does not dread, when in packs, to attack even the white bear itself. His chief value, however, consists in his qualities as a draught animal; for this he is carefully trained from his infancy, and undergoes severe and frequent floggings to break him regularly into the team. He becomes then remarkably submissive, comes at his master's call, and allows himself quietly to be harnessed to the sledge. In fastening them care is taken not to let them go abreast: they are tied by separate thongs, of unequal lengths, to a horizontal bar on the forepart of the sledge; an old knowing one leads the way, running ten to twenty paces a head, directed by the driver's whip, which is often twenty-four feet long, and can only be properly wielded by an experienced Esquimaux; the other dogs follow like a flock of sheep, and if one receives a lash, he bites his neighbour, and the bite goes round. Their strength, and speed, even with an hungry stomach, is astonishing; and to this they are often subjected, especially by the heathen, who treat them with little mercy, and force them to perform hard duty for the small quantity of food they allow them. Their portion upon a journey consists chiefly in offals, old skins, entrails, rotten whale flesh, or fins, or whatever else the Esquimaux himself cannot use; if these run out, or if the master, whose stomach is not of the most delicate contexture, requires his dogs' meat, then the poor creatures must go and seek for themselves, in which case they will swallow almost any thing, so that it is always necessary to secure the harness over night, if the traveller wishes to proceed in the morning. The teams vary from three to nine dogs, and this last number have been known to drag a weight of more than sixteen hundred pounds, a mile in nine minutes.

Like the Greenlanders the inhabitants of Labrador must draw their subsistence and their wealth chiefly from the sea; but in this respect their circumstances are less favourable than the former. Whales are scarce, and the chief species they take is that denominated the white fish, of little value in commerce. In pursuing them they have now adopted the European boat in preference to their own, and those most frequently employed are six oared, rowed by twelve men. The harpooner stands in the bow with his harpoon, or iron spear, which is stuck on a shaft one or two fathoms long, and is provided with a leathern thong of considerable length, to which are attached from five to ten bladders of seal skin. If the whale be struck he immediately dives to the bottom of the sea, where he remains till he is quite exhausted, when he again comes to the surface of the water to breathe; in the meanwhile the boat's crew observe all its motions, and are in readiness with their lances to complete the business, during which, the person who first struck the fish, falls down on his face in the fore part of the boat, and prays that Torngak would strengthen the thongs that they may not break; another of the crew allows his feet to be bound, as a symbol of what he desires, then attempting to walk, falls down and exclaims, "Let him be lame!" and a third, if he observes that the whale is dying, calls out, "Now Torngak is there, and will help us to kill the fish, and we shall eat his flesh, and fare sumptuously, and be happy!" But if the whale appears likely to escape, the first continues lying on his face crying out with vehemence, "Hear yet, and help us!" If the whale get off, some of their conjurors inform them that Torngak was not there, or he did not hear, or he was otherwise employed! Seals are more abundant, and are the chief dependance of the natives, their flesh serving for food, their skins for clothes and covering to their tents and boats, and their blubber for oil or for exchange. Catching the seal was formerly a tedious and laborious process, but now they are generally taken in nets, which the natives have adopted from the Europeans.

Salmon and salmon-trout are caught in every creek and inlet; they remain in the rivers and fresh-water lakes during the winter, and return to the sea in spring. The Esquimaux about Okkak and Saeglak, catch them in winter under the ice by spearing. For this purpose they make two holes in the ice, about eight inches in diameter, and six feet asunder, in a direction from north to south. The northern hole they screen from the sun by a bank of snow about four feet in height, raised in a semi-circle round its southern edge, and form another similar bank on the north side of the southern hole, sloped in such a manner as to reflect the rays of the sun into it. The Esquimaux then lies down, with his face close to the northern aperture, beneath which the water is strongly illuminated by the sunbeams entering at the southern. In his left hand he holds a red string, with which he plays in the water to allure the fish, and in his right, a spear ready to strike them as they approach; and in this manner, they soon take as many as they want. The trout on this coast are from twelve to eighteen inches long, and in August and September so fat, that the Esquimaux collect from them a sufficient quantity of oil for their lamps. The great shoals of herrings, which are the staple of the Greenlanders, do not touch at the shores of Labrador, but they have abundance of cod at many of their fishing stations, which the missionaries have shown them the method, and set them the example, of curing for their winter's supply.

Sea-fowl of the duck and goose species frequent the shores of Labrador, and the islands scattered around it, and afford to the natives, as they do to the rest of the northern tribes, food, warmth, and materials for trade. Of the land birds, the large partridge, [reiper,] or American wild pheasant, is the only one which the missionaries mention as being used by them as an agreeable variety of food, when, other resources failing, they have been confined to salted provisions.

The peninsula is chiefly inhabited on the coast, where the Moravians have now four settlements. The natives style themselves Innuit, i.e. men; and foreigners, Kablunat or inferior beings. Their original national name is Karalit, also denoting superiority, and the term Esquimaux, by which they are now so generally known, was given them by their neighbours the Indians, in whose language it signifies "men's raw meat," and probably imports that the Indians were, or it may be, are cannibals, and devoted their captives for this horrible repast. In lowness of stature, in their flat features, and dark colour, they exactly resemble the Greenlanders. Their language is a dialect of the same tongue, intelligible by both; but from their intercourse with foreigners, and their adopting some foreign customs, and becoming possessed of foreign utensils, a number of strange words have been introduced into each, only the former borrowed Danish or English phrases, while the latter had learned many French words. Their dress is nearly similar, being seal-skin coats and breeches, except the outer garment of the women ends behind in a train that reaches to the ground, and their boats are sufficiently large to carry their children if they are mothers—or provisions, or any other packages, if they are not.

Their winter houses are low, long, ill-constructed huts, inhabited by several families, and abominably filthy; they are dug deep in the earth, but the walls above the surface never exceed three feet in height, the roof is elevated in the middle, and the windows are placed to look to the south: the entry can only admit a person to crawl in; on one side of it is placed the kitchen, and on the other the dog-kennel, but no partition separates the biped from the quadruped inhabitant. If constrained to travel in winter, or to remain at a distance from their usual homes, they build houses of snow, which afford them a tolerably comfortable temporary abode. These habitations are very ingeniously constructed; they first search out a heap of firmly frozen snow, next they trace out a circular figure, of whatever size they think requisite, and then proceed with their long thin knives, to cut out square slabs, about three feet in length, two in breadth, and one in thickness, and gradually contracting as they rise, they form a dome about eight feet high; within, they leave an elevation all round the walls of about twenty inches, which, when covered with skins, serves both for a seat and a sleeping place; a piece of ice serves for a window, and in the evening they close their door with a board of snow; a lamp suspended from the roof gives light and heat to the apartment.

When missions were first commenced among the Greenlanders, they had had but little intercourse with Europeans: it was different when the brethren visited Labrador—the Esquimaux had been long acquainted with Europeans, but of the baser sort, and had lost many of the original features of savage life, without, however, gaining any thing better in their place. Their communication with these wretches, who disgraced the term civilized, corrupted their morals, and did not improve their knowledge, taught them wants, without teaching them how to supply them, except by theft. When the missionaries latterly came in contact with Esquimaux, who were previously unacquainted, or but little acquainted, with white men, they found them comparatively mild and honest. On a voyage of observation, they landed at Nachrack, and they report, "We found," say they, "the people here, differing much in their manners from the people at Saeglak. Their behaviour was modest, and rather bashful, nor were we assailed by beggars and importunate intruders. We had no instance of stealing. Thieves are considered by the Esquimaux in general with abhorrence, and with a thief no one is willing to trade." Latter voyagers have borne similar testimony to their brethren still further north; but their honesty seems to have arisen from the want of temptation; for the same missionaries add: "We have discovered that this propensity is not altogether wanting in the northern Esquimaux, who now and then, if they think they can do it without detection, will make a little free with their neighbour's property." And a further acquaintance with the natives discovered to the northern navigators, that first impressions are not always to be relied upon, for even the fair damsels could slyly secrete pewter plates, spoons and other valuables in the capacious trunks of their hose-boots; but those near the European settlements had improved in wickedness, and got ingrafted on their own vicious propensities new branches of more vigorous and productive mischief. They were in truth in a situation peculiarly adapted to shew the power and the necessity of the gospel for reclaiming the moral wilderness, for in them it had to overcome the worst vices of barbarous and civilized men.

Their religion too appears to have received no more improvement than their morals; from their neighbourhood to nominal Christians their creed remained much the same. They believed that Torngak, under the figure of an old man, dwelt in the waters, and had the rule over whales and seals, and that a female demon, Supperguksoak, under the form of an old woman, resided in the interior, and reigned over the land animals. But the Angekoks had assumed a secular power, which they did not possess in Greenland, and exercised at once the office of priest and a chief, of a sorcerer, a thief, and a murderer. Of this several examples will be found in the subsequent narrative, as well as instances of their ridiculous incantations: the females, in some cases, showed the authority and influence of their husbands. Their notions of futurity were gross and sensual, the highest enjoyment of the soul after death, being made to consist in successful hunting and gluttony; the sorest punishment, in poverty and hunger.

The Esquimaux on the east coast of Labrador, may be divided into two sections: those in the south, who seldom come farther than Kangertuksoak, about twenty miles north of Okkak, which lies 57°, 20 m. N.L.; and those of the north, who seldom come farther south than Nachrack 59° —m. Saeglak lies between, and in winter is visited by both in their sledges. Those in the north still retain the original native furniture, wooden bowls, and whale-bone water buckets, large and small lamps and kettles of bastard marble, and are more unvitiated, therefore more to be depended upon than the others. They of the south have obtained European pots and kettles of iron, hatchets, saws, knives and gimlets, woollen cloths, sewing needles, and various other utensils of iron; they are more treacherous, and less to be trusted in their dealings.

So long as Newfoundland remained in possession of the French, the traffic of Europeans with the Esquimaux went little farther than the bartering of fish hooks, knives, or trifling wares, which they had brought with them to the fishing for whale fins. But when that Island fell into the hands of the English, they and the Americans, who promised themselves great advantages from opening a trade with the natives, brought with them a more extensive assortment of goods. The traffic at first was mis-managed. In order to ingratiate themselves with the savages, the traders both took and allowed greater liberties than were calculated to preserve mutual good understanding. The foreigners excited the cupidity of the natives, which, though easily satisfied at the moment, soon became a constant, increasing, and insatiable appetite; and when their whale-fins, furs, or blubber were exhausted, and they could purchase no more of the articles they had learned to prize, they first quarrelled with those friends who would not make them presents of what they wanted, and then proceeded by fraud or force to supply themselves. Having a thorough contempt for the Kablunat, they imagined that they displayed a virtuous and praiseworthy superiority, when they overreached, deceived, and stole from them. The traders who entertained similar notions respecting the Esquimaux, acted in a similar manner, and their intercourse soon became productive of murders and robberies, in which the numbers and cunning of the latter enabled them for a time to be the most successful.

A band of Esquimaux from Avertok, a place not far from where the settlement of Nain at present is, commenced their plundering expeditions upon system, evincing a depraved ingenuity, converted now to better objects. They went regularly to the south with whale fins, which they bought up from their neighbours, and under the pretext of trading with the Europeans, contrived, either by stratagem or open violence, to rob them to an extent far beyond the value of what they pretended to barter; this succeeding for a while, they were joined by others from various quarters, till they were able to equip a fleet of boats amounting to eighteen. In 1763, they so infested the straits of Bellisle, that it was not safe for a fishing vessel to enter them alone. And so successful were these pirates, that they supplied the whole coast, not only with iron utensils and European arms, but likewise with boats, sails, anchors, cords and nets; and boats in particular were in such plenty, that a good one could have been got for a few skins, twelve whale-fins, or two or three dogs. The excesses and cruelties with which these depredations were accompanied, filled the Europeans and colonists with such extraordinary terror, that if but the cry of a bird was heard in the night, every one trembled, and made ready to flee.

The savages preferred stratagem, and to accomplish their purpose did not hesitate to employ the most insidious treachery. When they approached Cape Charles, they never ventured farther, till they reconnoitred during the dark in their kaiaks, and ascertained whether there were any Europeans on the north side of Chateau Bay; if they found none, they advanced in the night, or in foggy weather, to the three islands that lie in the mouth of the bay, whence they, under cloud of night, examined the bay itself. If they found there only a few Europeans, whom they supposed they could easily master, they approached softly so near, that they could stare them in the face, and then raised a most frightful yell, which commonly terrified the Europeans thus taken by surprise, and threw them into such confusion, that they left all, and were glad if they escaped with their lives. If, however, the Europeans did not allow themselves to be frightened by the unexpected cry, but received them in a friendly manner, and made offer to trade, the Esquimaux would agree with seeming cordiality; and having sent off their boats and families, the men returned in their kaiaks bringing a few whale-fins to sell, and entered upon a very amicable-like traffic. This kind of intercourse they would continue for some days, till, having gained the confidence of the strangers and thrown them off their guard, then the most resolute and strongest of the Esquimaux, concealing their long knives in a secret sheath in their left sleeve, would enter upon a bargain for some more fins, and while adjusting it with the greatest show of friendship, each would seize the trader with whom he was dealing, as if he meant to embrace him, and on a given sign by their leader, would plunge his knife into his heart. In this manner the whole were cut off, and their property became the prey of the savages, who, when they had fairly cleaned Chateau Bay, would set sail to renew their depredations in other quarters, and if dark and misty weather favoured, and their force was sufficient, they would even scour the straits of Bellisle, or roam during the night in search of booty through the neighbouring islands. Such was the character of the savages the Moravians were desirous to civilize; how they succeeded, the following pages will show.