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ОглавлениеEssential Southeast Asian Ingredients
Anchovies, commonly know as “whitebait” in the West, are available dried, either whole or cleaned and range in size from about 1/4 in to 2 1/2 in (0.5 cm to 6 cm). They are salted and sun-dried to make a seasoning and snack item. They are particularly popular in Malaysia and Indonesia (where they’re known as ikan bilis and ikan teri respectively). Dried anchovies are often cooked in a little oil to flavor vegetable dishes and soups; instant stock powder made from dried anchovies is now available. If possible, buy cleaned anchovies which have had the head and dark intestinal tract removed; otherwise, you’ll need to snap off the heads and flick out the intestinal tract of each tiny fish with the point of a sharp knife. Check that packets of dried anchovies do not look powdery or stale before buying. Store in a tightly closed container on the shelf.
Basil, Asian (bai horapa in Thai, rau que in Vietnamese) is the most common type of basil used in South east Asia, generally known outside the region as Asian or Thai basil. It has a wonderful aniseed aroma, making it quite different to the common Mediterranean or sweet basil and has medium to dark green leaves with a purple tinge to the upper stems and purplish flower heads. Use regular sweet basil as a substitute if unavailable. Lemon basil, (known in Thai as bai manglak) has smaller, soft pale green leaves and is usually cooked (when the flavor intensifies) rather than eaten raw; unfortunately it is not widely found outside the region. It is not difficult to strike Asian or lemon basil for growing at home; put a few stems in 1/2 in (1 cm) of water in a glass and keep in a sunny spot until rootlets appear from the bottom of the stem. Transfer to a pot of well-dug soil or plant in the garden in a sunny place. You could also plant Asian basil seeds, which are sometimes available in Asian food shops or nurseries.
Bamboo shoots of several types of bamboo are inexpensive and readily available in most of Southeast Asia, very often gathered wild by villagers. Although deep-frozen and dried bamboo shoots are usually available elsewhere, I recommend using canned bamboo shoots if fresh ones are not available. Provided canned shoots are briefly boiled in fresh water before being added to recipes, they have an acceptable flavor and texture.
Banana leaves are indispensable as food wrappers, used to wrap food for steaming or grilling, to provide little trays to hold food for steaming and as a kind of cookie cup for sweetmeats. The moisture within the banana leaf makes a difference to the texture and flavor of the food, but if you can’t find fresh or frozen banana leaf, use aluminum foil. For how to prepare banana leaf, see page 22.
Bean sprouts are made by soaking small, round, green mung beans, then keeping them moist in a warm place until the crisp white shoots emerge 3 to 4 days later. One of the most important vegetables in the region, they are eaten raw, briefly blanched, stir-fried, or made into a pickle. Buy crisp shoots with no sign of green leaves appearing at the seed end. Refrigerate covered in water for up to one week, changing the water each day. Pinch off the straggly tails before using the sprouts and discard any loose black skins, but do not remove the seed heads.
Black Chinese mushrooms (often known by their Japanese name, shiitake) are cultivated in most of Southeast Asia and enjoyed for their firm texture and meaty flavor when fresh. The dried mushroom, often imported from China, is even more widely used and is often preferred for its more intense flavor and keeping ability. Buy dried black mushrooms that do not show any signs of powder under their gills, which would indicate they are deteriorating. Store in a dry place in a closed container. Before using, soak in hot water until they soften; this will range from about 15 minutes to 1 hour, depending on the thickness of the cap; “flower mushrooms,” which have creamy white streaks making them look a bit like a chrysanthemum, are particularly tough and need a full hour to soften. Discard the stem before using the cap.
Cabbage is found in several varieties in Southeast Asia. The round white cabbage common in temperate climates is grown in cooler areas around the region and eaten both raw and cooked. More frequently found in local markets is Chinese celery cabbage or Napa cabbage, with very long, pale green to almost white overlapping leaves, used both raw and cooked. Another type popular for stir-frying is Chinese white cabbage. This name is somewhat misleading because although the stems are usually bright white, the leaves are either pale or mid-green. This delicately flavored cabbage is widely known abroad as bok choy. Another variety of this cabbage, with green instead of white stems, is often called Shanghai bok choy. Chinese flowering cabbage (choy sam or cai xin) is one of the most delicious members of the cabbage family, with soft mid-green leaves and stems, sometimes sold with delicate yellow flowers visible.
Calamansi lime is medium-sized and round, with a thin green skin that ripens to a pale yellow color. These are commonly used to provide lime juice for countless sauces and other dishes in Southeast Asia. Tahitian or other varieties of lime, or even lemon, can be used as a substitute, although the flavor and fragrance are not identical. Small round green limes (as pictured), are 1 to 1 1/2 in (2.5–4 cm) in diameter and called limau kesturi in Malaysia and lemo in Bali and have a mild and very fragrant juice. They are often sold as calamondin outside Asia, or may be known by their Filipino name, kalamansi. Substitute with regular lime juice, adding, if you like, a few drops of orange juice.
Candlenuts are waxy, cream-colored nuts related to the macadamia. Sold raw, they must be cooked (generally crushed and fried in seasoning pastes) before being eaten. They add texture and a faint flavor to food. Choose candlenuts that are light cream in color, not golden brown, as the latter may be rancid. Candlenuts have a high oil content, so are best refrigerated. Substitute one unsalted macadamia or two cashew nuts for each candlenut.
Cardamom is a Southwest Indian spice used to flavor some curries and sweet dishes. Whole cardamom pods have a fibrous straw-colored bark that encloses about 12 to 16 intensely fragrant black seeds. Generally, whole pods—slit with a knife and bruised to help release their fragrance—are used. You could substitute a pinch of cardamom seeds for one whole cardamom; ready-ground cardamom is not recommended as it loses its fragrance very quickly.
Chayote, originated in Central America, is also known as choko, christophene, custard marrow and vegetable pear. The last name describes its size and shape perfectly. Chayote has a delicate flavor and, when young and raw, a pleasant crisp texture. In most of Southeast Asia, however, the vegetable is cooked. Be sure to peel off the wrinkled, somewhat prickly skin; the central seed is edible.
Chinese celery is a small pungent plant, with leaves resembling large, dark green coriander leaves (cilantro). It is used as a flavoring herb and not as a vegetable, particularly in Malaysia and Indonesia. The leaves are often used as a garnish for soups (in fact, the Malay name for this translates as “soup leaf”) and for noodles. Chinese celery plants can be refrigerated for up to one week with the roots in a jar containing a little water; cover the plant and jar with a large plastic bag.
Chinese rice wine is used in Chinese-inspired recipes and sometimes added to marinades in other local dishes. The best Chinese rice wine is from Shaoxing in China; use dry sherry as a substitute.
Cinnamon may have been specified in these recipes, but the flavoring bark used in Southeast Asia is in fact from the cassia tree, a related species with a thicker, darker and more pungently flavored bark than true Ceylon cinnamon. Since cassia is generally labeled “cinnamon” when sold, I’ve used this name throughout the recipes, but cassia is what you should be using.
Chili is a Central American native and available in Southeast Asia in many different varieties of varying heat and flavor. The heat comes from an enzyme known as capsaicin, which is present in the seeds and membranes. Take care to wash your hands carefully after dealing with chilies, as the juice will sting—don’t ever rub your eyes or nose when working with chilies. Fresh finger-length chilies are used either green or red. The most common type are about finger length and of moderate intensity. Fresh chilies are often crushed to use as a seasoning; one finger-length chili is roughly equal to one teaspoon of crushed chili. It is possible to buy jars of crushed chili (generally mixed with a little salt), which can be kept refrigerated and these are an acceptable substitute for finger-length chilies. Crushed chili is sometimes sold under the Dutch-Indonesian name, sambal oelek or ulek. Generally speaking, the smaller and thinner the chili, the greater the heat. Small bird’s-eye chilies are much hotter and also have a different flavor and aroma to finger-length chilies. Bird’s-eye chilies can range in size from the aptly (if indelicately) named “rat’s dropping chili” which can be as tiny as1/2 in (1 cm), up to 1 1/4 to 1 3/4 in (3–4.5 cm) in length. Green, orange and red bird’s-eye chilies are all used, generally in spicy dips and relishes. Fresh chilies can be stored whole in a plastic bag in the freezer; remove them and slice or chop while they are still frozen. If you want the full flavor of chilies, but less heat, discard some of the seeds before using. Dried chilies give a much deeper red color to food and lack the smell of fresh chilies. They are usually cut into short lengths and soaked in hot water until soften, 10 to 15 minutes depending on the thickness of the chili. Dried chilies vary in intensity; the hottest I have tasted come, surprisingly, from China; Thai dried chilies are hot but not unbearably so, while some Indian varieties are actually quite mild. When buying dried chilies, make sure they still have a good deep color; any which are fading in color or breaking up will be passing their use-by date pretty soon. Dried chilies should keep a few months on the shelf, or almost indefinitely refrigerated. Toasted or dry-roasted dried chilies are coarsely crushed to make crushed dried chili flakes, sometimes sold as “chili flakes.” These are always served on the table in Thailand as a condiment. Dried red chilies ground to a very fine powder are sold as ground red pepper (cayenne); do not confuse this with American ground red pepper which contains black pepper and oregano and is used in Mexican dishes. Ground red pepper (cayenne) is sometimes added during cooking to provide heat when other types of chili are not used. A final tip for when someone has eaten a fiery chili and is suffering: don’t drink water, eat a spoonful of sugar instead. This is remarkably effective. Chili sauce is widely used in South-east Asia as a condiment. Many manufactured chili sauces have added garlic or ginger; some are sweet, others quite acidic and the chili content (read heat factor) differs considerably. One of the most widely exported chili sauces is a Thai blend of chili, garlic and vinegar sold as Sriracha chili sauce. Perhaps the most versatile dipping sauce is the mild combination of chilies, ginger and sugar often labeled “ sweet Thai chili sauce;” this is particularly good with grilled chicken and fish. Most brands of chili sauce can be kept on the shelf, although you might like to refrigerate it if you want to store it for many months.
Coconut is one of the most useful plants in the region, although not found everywhere in Southeast Asia. The flesh of the mature coconut is grated and squeezed to make coconut milk. The water from inside the young coconuts (often sold abroad in cans as “coconut juice”) is sometimes used to simmer meat (it has a tenderizing effect) and also enjoyed as a cooling drink. Although nothing matches fresh coconut milk for use in cakes and desserts, adequate substitutes are available. If I can’t get fresh coconut milk, I prefer to use small packets of concentrated coconut cream (the one I use is reduced from two whole coconuts to make 3/4 cup/185 ml of liquid). This can be used straight from the packet as coconut cream; diluted with two parts of water to make thick coconut milk and diluted with three parts of water to make coconut milk. Some brands of concentrated canned coconut milk are also quite good, although I’ve come across some very mediocre products that I’ve had to throw away. Experiment with what you can find locally, buying products labeled “coconut cream” or those which are clearly concentrated to give you the flexibility to create the type of coconut milk you require. Packets of powdered coconut milk are a useful standby when you need just a few spoons of coconut milk, but I do not recommend this product for general use. Once you’ve opened a packet, store it in the refrigerator.
Coriander leaves, seeds & roots (cilantro) is the world’s most widely used herb and perhaps even more popular in Southeast Asia than in Central and South America and the Middle East. Coriander leaves have a distinctive smell and attractive appearance and are the most important flavoring herb and garnish throughout the region. Coriander seeds are the most popular spice; for maximum freshness, local cooks prefer to use whole coriander seeds, heating them slightly to help release their volatile oils and make them easier to pound or grind whenever required. Each time you have finished using the leaves of whole fresh coriander plants, cut off the roots, wash well, dry and slice very thinly. Store in a small airtight container in the freezer; do this each time you use coriander and you will soon have a stock of coriander roots for use in Thai recipes. If you do not have enough roots when these are required in a recipe, you could use finely chopped coriander stem to make up the amount. Fresh coriander plants can be stored for about one week by putting them in a jar with the stems ends standing in about 1/2 in (1 cm) of water. Enclose the coriander and the jar with a large clear plastic bag and stand in the refrigerator.
Curry powder is a mixture of ready ground spices, used particularly in Malaysia and Singapore. Different mixtures are available, prepared from a range of spices depending on the type of dish which is required and are generally labeled accordingly. Curry powders labeled “for fish” or “for meat and poultry” are best bought in small quantities and stored in an airtight container in the refrigerator for maximum flavor.
Daikon radish has a very thin skin, which can be scraped off with a knife. It is normally eaten raw in Southeast Asia, generally after salting to remove some of the bitterness and is frequently partnered with carrot. Use the smaller radishes around 6 to 7 in (16–18 cm) if possible, as these will generally have a milder flavor and finer texture than the larger ones.
Dried Chinese sausage (lap cheong) is particularly popular among the Vietnamese. Perfumed with rose-flavored wine, they are never eaten alone, but cooked with rice or other food. They keep well in a dry place, although if you live in a humid climate, you may prefer to refrigerate them.
Dried Shrimp are used in countless ways throughout the region. They are an important flavoring in their own right and not used as a replacement for fresh shrimp. Although various sizes are available, the most common ones are around 3/4 -in (2-cm) long. They should look orangey-pink and plump; avoid any with a grayish appearance or with an unpleasant ammonia smell. It is possible to buy packets of powdered dried shrimp (generally labeled “floss” or “powder”), but it is better to buy the whole shrimp so you can check the quality. Dried shrimp will keep for several months if refrigerated. Before use, dried shrimp are usually soaked to soften slightly; 5 minutes in warm water should be sufficient. If dried shrimp powder is to be used as a garnish or flavoring, the dried shrimp have a better flavor if dry-roasted in a wok or saucepan for about 4 to 5 minutes (rather than being soaked) before being processed to a fine powder or floss.
Eggplant (also known as aubergine) comes in many different shapes, sizes and colors, ranging from tiny pea-sized eggplants (generally lightly pounded and added raw to dips), to egg-shaped vegetables and short or long slender eggplants. The color ranges from white through bright orange to pale green, pale purple and deep purple and there are even streaked green and purple varieties. Apart from the bitter pea-sized eggplant and a round, tough-skinned orange variety which is very sour, most Asian eggplants have the same mild flavor, which lends itself well to all types of seasoning. Try to use slender Asian eggplants, which are less bitter than their Western counterparts and do not need pre-salting; they also have tender, edible skins. Some eggplants, especially Japanese varieties, are very short, about 5 to 6 in (12.5 to 15 cm) in length, while others can be up to 10 in (25 cm). The length is not important, so long as you can obtain slender Asian varieties, you’ll find them much more palatable than the Western type.
Fish, preserved is preferred to dried shrimp paste in Cambodia and Laos, where it is known as prahok and padek respectively. The Vietnamese call it mam ca sac and use both this and fermented anchovy sauce (mam nem) as a flavoring. Chunks of fresh fish are salted and packed in barrels with a little cooked rice to aid the fermentation. Preserved fish is available in glass jars, often exported from Thailand. The English names vary, from Pure Pickled Gouramy Fish, to Pickled Grey Featherback Fish, to Preserved Mudfish, or something similar; the brand I am currently using also bears the French name poisson en saumure. You can recognize it by the pale beige or grey color of the thick paste, which has a few chunks of fish visible. This should be used sparingly. A jar will keep in the cupboard for at least a couple of years. Anchovy sauce or even fish sauce can be used a substitute.
Fish sauce is to most of Southeast Asia what soy sauce is to the Chinese and Japanese, the most widely used salty seasoning. Fish sauce has a unique fragrance which gives so much of the regional food its characteristic flavor and aroma. Made from the liquid poured off salted and fermented fish, fish sauce is a clear golden brown color. Thai and Vietnamese brands are usually readily available abroad; in general, Vietnamese fish sauce is slightly stronger in flavor than Thai brands. Keep fish sauce in the cupboard; it lasts almost indefinitely.
Five spice powder is a Chinese seasoning sometimes used in Thai and Vietnamese cooking. This finely ground mixture of cassia, cloves, fennel, Sichuan pepper and star anise has a warm fragrance and flavor and is commonly used in braised dishes, or a pinch added to pork sausages or paté. To keep its freshness as long as possible, store in the refrigerator.
Galangal is preferred to common ginger in much of Southeast Asia. It is pale cream with delicate pink tips while still young and becomes quite tough and fibrous as it ages. The fragrance of this rhizome seems to embody the smell of the tropics: warm, exciting and faintly spicy with a hint of camphor. Just the aroma alone is enough to get the taste buds going. If you can obtain fresh galangal, scrub it well, peel off any thick papery skin (but don’t worry about the tender skin, which can be left on). Cut the galangal in thin slices and store in a sealed bag in the freezer; use the slices as required while still frozen. Dried galangal slices are sometimes available and can be soaked in hot water for about 30 minutes to reconstitute, but a better alternative to the fresh product is galangal packed in brine, usually sold in jars. This may be labeled with the Thai name, kha, or simply referred to as “rhizome.” (Do not confuse it with Chinese keys or krachai). Avoid ground galangal, which does not have anywhere near the same flavor as other substitutes.
Garlic chives, also known as Chinese chives, resemble coarse flat blades of dark green grass. When raw, they have a strong flavor, which becomes more delicate after brief cooking. Sometimes, the flowering heads of this are sold as a vegetable and are considered a delicacy by the Chinese. They are also very decorative; a spray or two transforms any dish. Green onions (scallions) are the best substitute.
Ginger buds are the unopened flowers the of pink torch ginger, known as bunga kantan or bunga siantan in Malaysia and kaalaa in Thailand. It is eaten raw with a dip, added to salads or cooked in soups and curries. When cooked with fish, it has a flavor and fragrance somewhat reminiscent of Vietnamese mint. There is no substitute; if you are able to obtain the fresh buds, freeze whole for future use.
Green mango is universally loved throughout the region for its sour tang. It is eaten with dips, made into salads and pickles, or stir-fried with other ingredients. The mango should be peeled with a vegetable peeler and the flesh cut away from the central oval stone. Green man-goes should be stored in the fridge and peeled only just before they are needed. Ripe mangoes are generally eaten as they come from the tree, without any attempts to improve them. One exception is the favorite Thai dessert, where slices of ripe mango are partnered with glutinous rice drenched in coconut milk.
Green onions (scallions) are also known as spring onions or some-times as shallots. Green onions have slender stalks with dark green leaves and white bases. They are sprinkled generously on soups and as a garnish.
Jicama is sometimes confusingly called a turnip in Malaysia and Singapore. It is a roughly globe-shaped tuber, tapering slightly like a top, with papery beige skin covering crisp white flesh. Slightly sweet and juicy when small and young, jicama tends to become fibrous with age. They are eaten raw (usually with a dip) when young, or cooked when mature.
Kaffir lime has an unattractive knobbly skin, which earns it the unappealing alternative name of leprous lime. It has very little juice but the fragrance of the grated kaffir lime rind is incomparable. If you can ever lay your hands on fresh kaffir limes, put them whole in your freezer and pull them out to grate (while still frozen) whenever kaffir lime rind is needed. Kaffir lime leaf is one of the region’s most popular herbs, recognized by its double leaf that looks like a figure eight. The intense and inimitable fragrance of the kaffir lime leaf is essential in many Southeast Asian dishes. If you can buy the fresh leaves, store them in a bag in the freezer. The dried leaves are a poor substitute, but you can sometimes find frozen leaves in Asian stores. In most recipes, you could substitute 1/4 teaspoon grated lime or lemon rind for 1 kaffir lime leaf. Fresh kaffir lime leaves are often finely shredded for adding to salads and other dishes. Fold the leaf in half and cut out the tough central rib. Roll up the leaves from the tip to stem, like a cigar, then lay on a board and use a sharp knife to cut into hair-like shreds.
Lemongrass is one of the most important herbs in Southeast Asia, a type of grass that grows up to 32 in (80 cm) in height. The bottom portion (about 8 in/20 cm) is a tightly packed bulb, a little like a miniature leek, while the top part of the lemongrass has coarse, broad leaves which are not used in cooking. The flavor and fragrance are concentrated in the bulb, which is either bruised and added whole (or cut into manageable lengths), or thinly sliced and often pounded or processed. Usually only the tender inner part of the bottom 3 in (7.5 cm) is used for slicing and pounding; peel off two or three of the tough outer leaves to get to the inner portion. As even the inner stem is fibrous, it must be sliced as finely as possible, or else processed, before being used. Lemon-grass is added raw to salads and also cooked. If you can buy fresh lemongrass, trim off the leaves and keep about 5 to 6 in (12.5 to 15 cm) of the stem. Stand with the ends in about 1/2 in (1 cm) of water in a glass and keep in a warm place (a bench or window sill) for up to about 2 weeks for use when required. Alternatively, trim the lemongrass and store in the fridge for 2 to 3 weeks, or for several months in the freezer; slice while still frozen. Small packets of thinly sliced, deep-frozen lemongrass are often available in Asian stores abroad; 2 tablespoons of sliced lemongrass are roughly equivalent to the inner part of the bottom 3 in (7.5 cm) of a stem of fresh lemon-grass. If you live in a moderately warm climate and would like to grow lemongrass, leave the cut stems of fresh lemongrass in water until they start to send out roots. Transfer to a large pot or a sunny spot in the garden and keep well watered. They should multiply during the summer.
Noodles were introduced by the Chinese and have, over the centuries, become a firmly entrenched part of Southeast Asian cuisine, although they have never replaced rice as the staple food. Noodles made from rice flour predominate, although wheat flour noodles are also eaten, especially in the towns and cities where Southeast Asians of Chinese ethnic origin tend to congregate. Both fresh and dried noodles are used. Fresh noodles should be refrigerated until used; dried noodles will keep almost indefinitely in a cupboard. Fresh rice flour noodles are generally cut into flat strands about 1/2 in (1 cm) in width and are usually thin and light in texture. These are known as sen men in Thailand and bahn pho in Vietnam. Fresh rice flour noodles tend to be thicker and heavier in Singapore and Malaysia, where they are known as kway teow or sa hor fun. Spaghetti-like fresh round rice flour (laksa) noodles are also found and generally used in noodle soups. It is also possible to buy flat sheets of rice flour dough, which can be cut to the desired size. Very thin fresh rice vermicelli is also available in the region, but seldom seen abroad. All fresh rice noodles have been steamed before being sold; before using, they should be blanched in hot water for about 1 minute to remove any oil which has been used to stop them sticking together, then drained and used as directed in recipes. Dried rice flour noodles come in several forms. Dried rice vermicelli is very fine threads of rice noodle, rather like angel hair pasta. Rice-stick noodles (or rice-ribbon noodles) are flat and vary in width from about 1/8 to 1/2 in (3 mm–1 cm). (Some brands of rice vermicelli are confusingly labeled rice-stick noodles.) Dried rice-stick noodles should be soaked in hot water for about 10 minutes to soften. They are then generally boiled until cooked, which will take 30 to 60 seconds for rice vermicelli and about 3 to 5 minutes for rice-stick noodles, depending on their thickness. Transparent (bean thread) noodles, made from green mung bean starch, are also known as jelly noodles, glass noodles, cellophane noodles and green bean threads. The dried noodles are very fine and white and difficult to cut before soaking, even using kitchen scissors. For this reason, try to choose very small packets so that you will not have to fight to separate as little as 1 oz (30 g), which a number of recipes require. Before using the noodles, put the required amount in a bowl and add warm water to cover. They should be soft after 10 minutes, when they can be drained and cut to size. Packets keep almost indefinitely on the shelf. Wheat noodles in their fresh form are sold in flat ribbons of varying widths, or are round and vary in size from very thin noodles to fat, heavy yellow noodles looking like spaghetti. Wheat noodles are often called “egg noodles,” even though most do not actually contain eggs and get their yellow color from food dye. Fresh wheat noodles can be kept refrigerated for 2 to 3 days. Wheat and egg noodles are also available dried, although the thickest variety is sometimes difficult to find. Before using fine or medium fresh wheat or “egg” noodles, shake them to dislodge any starch (used to stop them sticking together) and blanch in boiling water for up to 1 minute to cook. Rinse under cold water (this is important) and drain. Thick fresh wheat noodles (often known as Hokkien noodles) should be put into a bowl and blanched in boiling water for about 1 minute, to remove any oil or impurities. Drain and use as directed in the recipe. Dried wheat noodles are normally added to boiling water to cook, without any pre-soaking; the cooking time will depend upon the thickness, but is usually around 3 minutes (check the time stated on the package). The noodles should be separated with a long fork or chopsticks during cooking and once cooked, rinsed in cold water and drained. If this last step is omitted, the noodles may become gluey.
Oyster sauce is a Chinese seasoning sauce that does not actually taste of oysters (and often doesn’t even contain them; check the label to see if you’re buying real oyster sauce and not “oyster-flavored” sauce) and has the ability to intensify the flavor of food. It is often splashed on to cooked vegetables, or added to marinades; it is more popular in areas with a large Chinese community.
Palm sugar is made from the boiled sap of several different types of palm, including the coconut and palmyra. The flavor can be like a mild butterscotch, similar to maple syrup, or quite strong, while the texture varies from soft palm sugar sold in jars and spooned out, to hard round cylinders and wide oval cakes. (The oval shape comes from the coconut shell into which the sugar syrup is poured to set.) Palm sugar is not as sweet as regular cane sugar and has a very pleasant aroma. Use soft brown sugar as a substitute, or if making palm sugar syrup, add a little maple syrup to the brown sugar syrup.
Pandanus leaf is a long wide blade; it is also called fragrant screwpine. The leaves grow up to about 20 in (50 cm) in length, but are often sold trimmed. Cooks throughout the region often rake a pandanus leaf with a fork, then tie it into a knot and add it to the pot when cooking rice; it adds a subtle fragrance that makes the rice taste like prized newly-harvested rice. Pandanus leaves are also used in some curries, but mainly in cakes and desserts. They can be deep-frozen. Pandanus essence is the best substitute.
Pickled ginger comprises slices of ginger pickled with salt and vinegar, either prepared at home, or bought in small amounts scooped out of big jars in local markets. Chinese and Japanese brands are usually readily available in Asian stores abroad. Pickled ginger is often shredded and added to sauces or salads.
Rice flour, made from plain rice and glutinous rice (sometimes labeled “sweet” or “sticky” rice flour, made from white glutinous rice) are both used in cakes and savories; they are not interchangeable.
Rice paddy herb, known as ngo om in Vietnam and ma om in Cambodia, is a distinctive herb with a fleshy pale stem with narrow light green leaves. It tastes a bit like very strong fresh coriander leaves (cilantro), which can be used as a substitute. Rice paddy herb is sometimes added to soups, served as part of a herb platter and also eaten with dips.
Rice paper wrappers is a wafer-thin disc made from a rice and water dough spread on woven bamboo trays to sun-dry (the disc retains the distinctive pattern of the tray when dried). Known in Vietnam as bahn trang, these discs are very brittle and need to be moistened in water to soften slightly before being used to roll up just about anything and everything Vietnamese. They are also filled and deep-fried to make the famous Vietnamese spring rolls. Packets of rice papers (often made in Thailand) are available in three forms: large discs about 8 in (20 cm) in diameter; smaller discs 5 to 6 in (12.5 to 15 cm) in diameter and wedges which have been cut from a large round rice paper. The last are preferable for making tiny deep-fried spring rolls. Advice on handling rice papers is given in recipes where these are required. They can be stored in a covered container in the cupboard for several months. Rice vinegar is mild and faintly fragrant and is the preferred vinegar throughout Southeast Asia. Inexpensive brands from China are usually readily available in the West (as well as in Southeast Asia). If buying a Japanese rice vinegar, make sure you do not buy what is labeled “sushi vinegar” as this has sweet rice wine, sugar and salt added. If you cannot obtain rice vinegar, use distilled white vinegar.
Sago, a starch extracted from the trunk of the sago palm, is sometimes eaten as a gluey staple in a few remote parts of Southeast Asia. However, it is more commonly dried to make tiny white balls known as dried pearl sago. These are not much bigger than a pin head and are mainly used in desserts and in a few soups. The balls soften and turn transparent when cooked and help thicken coconut milk or water with their gluey texture. Tapioca balls, made from the starch of the cassava root, are virtually indistinguishable in taste (there isn’t any!) and can be substituted for pearl sago. Some tapioca balls are the same size as pearl sago, although it is usually found in larger balls about the size of a tear drop.
Salam leaf is popular in Indonesian cooking. It is quite different to the Western bay leaf (or laurel), which is often incorrectly suggested as a substitute. Salam leaf grows on a large tree that is a member of the cassia family; it adds a distinctive aroma to food, even when used dried. If you can obtain fresh salam leaves, keep them in a bag in the freezer; otherwise, store dried leaves in an airtight container in the fridge for long keeping. There is no substitute for salam leaves.
Salted fish is a standby in many Southeast Asian homes. The type used in recipes in this book is thick fillets of salted fish, often sold as Mergui fish (named after the region in southern Burma reputed to produce some of the finest salted fish). Salted fish is not normally soaked before use; when thinly sliced and fried to a crisp, it makes a wonderful garnish (and, incidentally, a good substitute for crumbled bacon in Western salads).
Salted soybeans is richly flavored fermented soybean, known in Thailand by its Chinese name, dau jiao and in Vietnam as tuong cu da or tuong bac. The beans are fermented in thick liquid and sold in jars; they vary from dark brown to light golden in color and are sometimes labeled “yellow bean sauce.” The basic salted soybean paste contains only soybeans, water and salt. It is possible also to buy slightly sweetened versions, or those with added chili. The beans are usually mashed with the back of a spoon before being used.
Saw-tooth coriander, a long pungent blade with saw-tooth edges, tastes like a cross between coriander, mint and basil. It is known in Cambodia as chi bonla or chi ba-rang, prik chee farang in Thailand and ngo gai in Vietnam (elsewhere, it is sometimes referred to by its botanical name, eryngo). Sawtooth coriander is generally added to soups and served as part of a platter of fresh herbs with Vietnamese food. Fresh coriander leaves (cilantro) is the best substitute.
Sesame oil is made by extracting the oil from toasted sesame seeds, giving it a rich flavor and aroma that is lacking in Middle Eastern sesame oils, extracted from raw seeds. Sesame oil is used sparingly as a seasoning, not as a cooking medium. Look for a Chinese brand if possible.
Sesame seeds are tiny tear-drop shaped seeds, creamy white in color and rich in oil. In Southeast Asia (particularly Vietnam), they are generally toasted and used as a sprinkle on food, including desserts.
Shallots are small and purplish, each weighing about 1 /3 oz (10 g) and often preferred to larger onions for their sweetness and texture. If these are not available, the brown-skinned or “French” shallot (eschalot) can be substituted, taking into account any significant difference in size when measuring the quantity required for a recipe. Alternatively, use a red or brown skinned onion; a 3 to 3 1/2 oz (85–100 g) onion is roughly equivalent to eight shallots. In Vietnamese recipes, it’s fine to use the white portion of green onions (scallions) if shallots are not available. Shallots are frequently pounded and used to flavor and thicken sauces and curries, added raw to many salads and also deep-fried until crisp as a popular garnish. Packets of crisp-fried shallots are normally available in Asian stores, but it is easy to make your own (see page 22).
Shrimp crackers are dried wafers made from shrimp and starch (generally tapioca flour) and are very popular as a garnish or snack, especially in Indonesia, where they are known as krupuk. Similar wafers are made with fish, vegetables, or the melinjo nut. All wafers should be stored in an airtight container and must be thoroughly dry before being dropped in very hot oil for a few seconds, until they puff up. (Some local cooks sun-dry them before frying, but you can also use a very low oven.)
Shrimp paste is common everywhere from Burma (where it’s called nagpi) through to Bali (where the local name is terasi) and some form of dried shrimp paste is an important part of Southeast Asian cuisine. Made from fermented salted shrimp pressed into a paste (which can range in texture from moist to firm and dry), dried shrimp paste varies in color from very dark brown through to a purplish pink. This paste is very strong smelling when raw and must be cooked before being eaten (see page 22). It can be stored almost indefinitely in a firmly covered container in a store cupboard. Thick black shrimp paste should not be confused with dried shrimp paste, as it has a different flavor and texture (although it still declares its origin in terms of smell). This black, treacle-like paste is sold in jars, sometimes labeled “black shrimp paste” or “ petis.” It is used in Malaysia and Singapore, particularly by Nonya cooks and also in Indonesia, usually in sauces. The Chinese name is hay koh.
Soy sauce, introduced by the Chinese, is made from salted and fermented soybeans. Widely used in Southeast Asia, the most common type is regular soy sauce, which is a clear medium brown liquid with a salty taste. Dark soy sauce (Chinese brands are often labeled “Superior soy sauce”) is dense black and thicker, somewhat less salty and with a malty tang. In Indonesia, sweet soy sauce (kicup manis) is the most widely used variety. If you can’t obtain this, add 1 teaspoon soft brown sugar to 1 tablespoon of dark soy sauce. If using soy sauce which is naturally fermented (check the label, the best Japanese brands are made in this way), it is best refrigerated after opening. Other types of soy sauce can be kept in a cupboard for many months.
Star anise is native to Southern China and looks like a small dried brown flower with shiny brown seeds within each of its eight petals. Sometimes some of the “petals” of this aniseed-flavored spice get broken; if a whole star anise is required, add more petals to make up the required number. Star anise is particularly popular with braised pork dishes and is essential in Vietnamese beef stock.
Tamarind is a fruit from the huge and decorative tamarind tree. The pods contain flesh-covered seeds which are used either when young and green or, more commonly, picked when mature and used as a pulp. Tamarind juice, which adds a fruity sourness to countless dishes throughout the region, is made from tamarind pulp, soaked in a little water, then squeezed and strained to provide the juice. Tamarind pulp is usually sold as a dark brownish mass, pulp, seeds, fibers and all. Some brands of tamarind pulp are compressed into a very hard brick and are best avoided, as it is concentrated tamarind paste sold in jars. Try to find Thai brands of tamarind pulp, which are usually moist and of good quality. Stored in a jar or firmly covered container on the shelf, tamarind pulp keeps almost indefinitely.
Tapioca is also known as cassava. The tubers of this plant and even the young leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. The starch extracted from the tubers is sometimes dried and made into small balls (see Sago). Tapioca flour is most commonly used in desserts (and is, incidentally, used like talcum powder against prickly heat).
Turmeric belongs to the prolific ginger family. The plant has large soft leaves and is predominantly used for its intensely yellow rhizome. Fresh or frozen turmeric rhizome is sometimes available outside Asia; ground turmeric can be used as a substitute, but although it gives plenty of color, the flavor of ground turmeric is somewhat acrid compared to the fresh rhizome. Turmeric leaf is used as a herb in some Indonesian and Malaysian dishes; there is no substitute.
Vietnamese mint or laksa leaf is a pungent herb with dark, narrow green leaves known by a number of names in the West: polygonum (the botanical name), Vietnamese mint, hot mint, long-stemmed mint and laksa leaf. To help avoid any confusion, here are the major local names: Vietnam, rau ram; Thailand, phak phai; Laos, phak pheo; Malaysia daun kesom; Singapore, daun laksa. This distinctively flavored herb is frequently part of a platter of fresh herbs served with noodle soups in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam and is added to laksa noodle soup in Singapore and some parts of Malaysia. You can strike Vietnamese mint from plants bought in an Asian store if you live in either a hot or temperate climate. Stand a few stems in water in a glass set in a sunny spot (the window sill, perhaps); as soon as you see white roots appearing, plant it in the soil in a sunny position and water frequently.
Water chestnuts are Chinese vegetable grown in muddy waters. It has an almost milky sweetness and crisp white flesh that retains its delightful texture even after cooking. Rinse well to remove any dirt before peeling, then put into cold water immediately to avoid discoloring. Water chestnuts can be eaten raw or stir-fried. They are minced to add texture and flavor to fillings. They are also added to desserts and sweetmeats, particularly in Thailand.
Water spinach is a popular and highly nutritious leafy green vegetable that grows in damp areas. It goes by a variety of names, including morning glory, water convolvulus and swamp cabbage. It has hollow stems with pointed, mid-green leaves, which have a soft texture and appealing mild flavor when cooked. Young shoots are frequently eaten raw as part of a salad platter or with a dip, while the leaves and tender stems are usually braised. It does not keep well; wrap in damp newspaper or a cloth and refrigerate for one to two days.
Tofu (bean curd) was introduced by the Chinese and has become part of the local diet in much of Southeast Asia. The two most commonly used forms are regular or soft tofu, which is reasonably soft and sold in blocks and pressed tofu, which has been compressed to expel most of the moisture and form a solid cake. Soft tofu is generally used in soups and braised dishes, while pressed tofu is normally deep-fried. Silken tofu (Japanese in origin) is very soft; it is found in some cities in the region and either steamed or added to soups, particularly by cooks of Chinese origin. Fresh tofu should be covered with water and refrigerated; it can be kept for several days. Pasteurized tofu is sold in vacuum packs or plastic tubs outside Southeast Asia; refrigerate until the expiry date. Another type of tofu sometimes added to braised dishes or soups is dried deep-fried tofu, which is generally sold in small rectangles. These are often sold on strings in Asia, but are elsewhere usually packed in plastic. They are light and spongy in texture and need to be dipped briefly in boiling water to remove the oil before being used. Dried deep-fried tofu has an almost nutty flavor and is particularly appreciated for the way it soaks up the liquid to which it is added. It can be kept refrigerated for at least two weeks. Dried tofu skin is the dried skin that forms on top of boiling soy milk. It is dried and sold in sheets as a wrapper or sold in thick crinkled strips about 1 1/4 -in/3-cm wide. Tiny squares of salty fermented tofu, often reddish brown on the outside, are sold in jars and used exclusively as a seasoning (especially with pork) and as a condiment which is often served with rice porridge.
White fungus sometimes called silver fungus, is generally a pale ivory color and very crinkly in appearance, almost like a dried chrysanthemum. It is used mostly in soupy desserts, where it is enjoyed for its slightly chewy texture and translucent appearance. It should be soaked in warm water to reconstitute.
Wild pepper leaves are sometimes incorrectly called betel leaves in English (cha plu in Thai, bo la lot in Vietnamese, pak i leut in Lao and daun kadok in Malay). They have a pleasant, faintly peppery flavor and are used as a salad herb or, particularly in Thailand and Vietnam, as a food wrapper. These can sometimes be found in Vietnamese food shops and can be kept refrigerated in a cloth for a day or two.
Winged bean is also known as angled or Goa bean. It has a slight touch of bitterness and a pleasant crisp texture. Look for small young beans which snap rather than bend. Before cooking, pinch the tip and pull down any strings. Winged beans are either eaten raw, usually with a dip, or blanched briefly in boiling water, then sliced to make salads. They can also be stir-fried, but do not over-cook or they will lose their crisp texture.
Woodear fungus is used for its slightly chewy texture and dark color. Wood or cloud ear fungus literally grows on trees and has virtually no flavor but is added to soups, salads and vegetable dishes. Two varieties of dried wood ear fungus are available: one is small, thin, crinkly and uniformly black, while the other is larger and thicker with a pale grey or beige underside. There is no difference in flavor, but the smaller version is less chewy and reconstitutes more quickly. It keeps almost indefinitely in a covered container on the shelf. Before using, soak the wood ear fungus in warm water until it softens and swells to about five times its dried size. Small thin fungus pieces will take 5 minutes, while thicker pieces need longer. Drain and cut out any hard central portion, then slice or chop according to the recipe.
