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Introduction by William Murchison
English Representative Government in the Eighteenth Century
Diversities in the size of constituencies and qualification of electors
The founders of the American Republic aimed at the same ends
Rousseau's conception of government essentially different
Review of the French constitutions, 1789–1830
Ascendency of the middle class in France, 1830–1848
English Reform Bill of 1832—Its causes
Fears it excited not justified by the event
Place of the middle class in English government
Votes not always a true test of opinion
Motives that govern the more ignorant voters
Dangers of too great degradation of the suffrage
Growth of Rousseau's doctrine in England—The Irish representation
Taxation passing wholly under the control of numbers
Successful parliaments mainly elected on a high suffrage
French Democracy
Favourable circumstances under which it has been tried
Re-established by Louis Napoleon—The Coup d'Etat and the plebiscite
Universal suffrage under the Second Empire
Democracy and the Franco-German War
French Finance during the Republic
Forms of corruption and extravagance
Scherer on French political life
American Democracy
Characteristics of the American Constitution
Advantageous circumstances of America
Growth of democratic influence in the Presidential elections
Elections for the Senate—Characteristics of that body
Elected judges—The ‘Molly Maguires’
Political assessments on office-holders
Connection of the spoils system with democracy
Attempts to restrict the spoils system
Lax naturalisation—The Know-nothing party
Municipal corruption general in the great cities
Measures of Reform
Power of local legislatures limited
Increased authority of the mayors
Mr. Bryce on American corruption
American acquiescence in corruption
The best life apart from politics
Protective strength of the Constitution
Influence of the separation of Church and State on political morals
Public spirit during the War of Secession
Excellence of general legislation in the United States
Tocqueville's judgments—Changes since he wrote
Corruption in railroad management
Abolition of slavery—Its influence on foreign policy
Intellectual side of American civilisation
Democracy not favourable to the higher intellectual life
Lessons to be drawn from American experience
Majorities required in different nations for constitutional changes
Attempt to introduce the two-thirds majority system in New South Wales
Small stress placed in England on legislative machinery
The English belief in government by gentlemen
Declining efficiency of parliamentary government throughout Europe
England has not escaped the evil
Increasing power and pretensions of the House of Commons
The Parish Councils Bill of 1894
Excess of parliamentary speaking—Its causes
Growth of the caucus fatal to the independence of the House of Commons
The relation of the House to Government—Disintegration of parties
And of the appetite for organic change
Both parties have contributed to this
Conservatism in English Radicalism
Rendered easy by our system of taxation
Sir Cornewall Lewis on the best taxation—Indirect taxation
Remissions of direct taxation sometimes the most beneficial
Exaggeration of Free Trade— The corn registration duty—The London coal dues
The abolition of the income tax made an election cry in 1874—History of this election
Appeals to class cupidity by the Irish Land League
Its success has strengthened the tendency to class bribery
Irish Land Question
Peculiar difficulties to be dealt with in Ireland
Tenants' improvements—Sharman Crawford's proposals
Abortive attempts to protect improvements
And of 1870—Its merits and demerits
Paucity of leases and tenants' improvements—How viewed in Ireland
Rents in Ireland before 1870 not generally extortionate
But such rents did exist, and most tenancies were precarious
Absolute ownership of land under the Incumbered Estates Act
Circumstances under which this Act had been car ried—Its nature
It guaranteed complete ownership under a parliamentary title
Confiscation of Landlord Rights by the Act of 1881
Fixity of tenure given to the present tenant
Which could not honestly be done without compensating the owner
Inseparable rights of ownership destroyed
The New Land Court and its proceedings
Rights of the Legislature over landed property—Mill
Dishonest character of Irish land legislation
The defence of the Act of 1881
The Act failed to pacify Ireland—Effects of the Home Rule agitation
Tendency of subversive principles in legislation to grow
Landlord claim for compensation
Effects of the land legislation on Irish capital and contracts
On the ultimate position of tenants
Moral effects of this legislation
The worst form of robbery, legal robbery
Dangers of the Irish precedent
Mr. George's comparison of Irish and American landlordism
Where should State intervention stop?
Other Attacks on Property
Mill's doctrine of the ‘unearned increment’
English land no longer the source of English food
Nationalisation of railroads, &c
Cautions in dealing with such question—Is democracy suited to the task?
Influence of philosophical speculation on politics
Character in public life—How far democratic election secures it
The Home Rule alliance—Compared with the coalition of North and Fox
Effects of the lowering of the suffrage on political morality
And of the increased hurry of modern life
Personal and class interests in politics
Inadequate sense of the criminality of political mis deeds
Nonconformist ministers and Mr. Parnell
Relative importance of private and public morals in politics
Growth of the professional politician
Democratic local government—Its good and evil
Place of wealth in modern politics
Measures that must strengthen the professional politician
High standard of political integrity in Great Britain
Probity of the permanent service
Better side of the House of Commons
Competitive examinations—Their drawbacks
Their great use in restraining corruption
The character of a nation not always shown by its public life
Evidence that English character has not declined— Its moral and philanthropic side
The governing capacity—Egypt and India
Dangers to India in democratic government
High character of English municipal government
Political influence of the provincial towns
Influence of the telegraph on politics— Provincial press
Modern England not barren in great men
Is not uniformly favourable to liberty
Illustrations from Roman and French history
Equality naturally hostile to liberty
Love of democracy for authoritative regulation
Effects of the increase of State power—Taxation and liberty
Party system hastened the transformation
Some Suggested Remedies
Change in the Irish representation
Class representation—Its history and decline
Mill's suggestions for mitigating dangers of universal suffrage
Repudiated by modern Radicalism—The ‘fancy’ franchises
The Swiss Referendum—Its history and influence
Its recent adoption in the United States
Attempt to introduce it into Belgium
Belief that a low suffrage is naturally conservative
Extension of the power of committees—The American committee system
English parliamentary committees—Devolution
Proposal that Governments should only resign on a vote of want of confidence
Probability that democratic Parliaments will sink in power
Democratic local government—Success of English local government
Largely due to property qualifications
Almost all of them now abolished—Act of 1894
This is the more serious on account of the great increase in taxation
Increase of State Taxation in Europe—Its Causes
Military expenditure—Standing armies
Buckle's prediction of the decline of wars
The commercial spirit now favours territorial aggrandisement
Growing popularity of universal military service
Importance of the question to the English race
Conscription and universal suffrage connected
But the military system may come into collision with the parliamentary system
National education—Its social and political effects
Primary education assuming the character of secondary education
Reformatories and prison reform
Increased taxation due to increased State regulation—Herbert Spencer's views
Necessity for some extension of State control
Advantages of State action in some fields
Government credit—Enterprises remunerative to the State
Unremunerative forms of literature and art
Dangers of State regulation and subsidies
Change in the character of democracy since Joseph Hume
Motives that have led to State aggrandisement
Attempts to push it still further—The Manchester school repudiated
Tendency to throw all taxation on one class
Tocqueville and Young on English taxes in the eighteenth century
Abolition of taxes on the necessaries of life
Bentham, Mill, and Montesquieu on exempted incomes
Lord Derby's description of English taxation
Taxation mainly on the rich and chiefly for the benefit of the poor
Adam Smith on the rules for taxation
Advantages of taxation of luxuries
Growing popularity of graduated taxation—Its early history
Taxation in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand
In France and the United States
Arguments against graduated taxation
Probability that it will increase
Its effect on the disposition of landed property
On the position and habits of the upper classes
Wealth dissociated from duties
Democracy not indifferent to wealth
CHAPTER 4 ARISTOCRACIES AND UPPER CHAMBERS
Dangers of government by a single Chamber
Lessons derived from the Commonwealth
Early History of the House of Lords
Effects of the Reformation and the Rebellion
Importance of the small boroughs in sustaining its influence
Creations of George III.—The Irish Union
Position of the spiritual peers
The House of Lords under George III. not unpopular
Power of personal interest on its members before 1832
Their influence in the House of Commons
Attitude of the peers towards the Reform Bill of 1832
Change in their position effected by the Bill
Importance of the House of Lords in making legislation harmonise with the popular will
In diminishing the too great influence of party in legislation
Attacks on the Lords after the Reform Bill of 1832
The Hereditary Element
Advantages of special education for politics
Influences that maintain the character of the British aristocracy
Their energy and power of adaptation
Large amount of ability among them
Advantages the nation derives from an aristocracy
Representative character of the House of Lords
Popularity of the aristocracy in England
Debility and apathy of the House of Lords
Causes of Its Debility
Discouraging influences in the House
Jealousy of the House of Commons of Bills originating in the Lords
Financial impotence of the Lords
Sole right of the Commons to originate Money Bills
The Lords deprived of their old right of amending them
Difficulty of maintaining this rule—Its relaxation
The right of rejecting Money Bills
Repeal of the paper duties in 1860
The different provisions of the Budget combined in one Bill
Connection of taxation and representation
Powers of foreign Senates over finance
Dangers of the concentration of all financial power in one House—Its mitigations in England
The House of Lords cannot overthrow Ministers
Its Judicial Functions
Attempts to make lawyers life peers
The peerage of Lord Wensleydale (1856)
Later attempts to create life peers
Lord Selborne's Court of Appeal (1873)
Lord Cairns's new Appellate Court in the House of Lords
Excessive and increasing number of new peerages
Elements from which they are drawn
Imperfect recognition of non-political eminence
One-sided political influence in the House of Lords
This fact a recent one—Its causes
Parliamentary history, 1892–1895
The election of 1895, and its lessons
The importance of a reform of the House of Lords not diminished
Foreign Upper Houses
The Senate of the United States
Upper Houses in Prussia, Austria, and Italy
Colonial Constitutions
The Canadian Senate—The Newfoundland Constitution
African colonial Governments—The island colonies
Upper Chambers in Australia and New Zealand
Proposals for Reforming the House of Lords
Advantages of retaining a limited hereditary element
Proposals for a larger introduction of the representative principle
Right of ministers to sit in both Houses
Advantages and disadvantages of carrying unfinished legislation into a second session
This should at least be done in the case of amendments in the Lords
Changes in the basis of international politics
The rights of nationalities in the French Revolution
Completely ignored after the fall of Napoleon
Signs of revival before 1830—French Revolution of that year
Italian writers on nationality
Nationality not necessarily a democratic idea
Ambiguities about the elements that constitute it
Good and evil sides of the doctrine of nationalities
Not applicable to uncivilised nations
Plebiscites frequently deceptive
Dangers of pushing the nationality doctrine to its full consequences
America a Test Case
Analysis of English opinion on the War of Secession
The Northern case for repressing the revolt
Nearly all European predictions about the war proved false
The Italian Question
Impulse it gave to the doctrine of nationalities
The Peace of Villafrance and the Roman question
Lord J. Russell's estimate of the plebiscites
Policy of Napoleon III.—And of England
The unity of Italy dearly purchased
The unity of Germany—The agglomeration of race elements
Conflicting tendencies towards agglomeration and towards local unities
Increased value attached to national languages
The military system accentuates national differences
Difficulties of reconciling local aspirations with imperial interests
Influences that are weakening the nationalist spirit
CHAPTER 6 DEMOCRACY AND RELIGIOUS LIBERTY
Nations differ in their conceptions of liberty and in the kinds of liberty they value
Importance of taking stock of our conceptions of liberty
Religious Freedom
And in public opinion—Causes of increased tolerance
Contrast between Catholic opinion in England and that in Rome and Canada
Abolition of religious disqualifications in the United States
In France, Belgium, and Prussia
Slow progress of the movement in England—The Catholic question
Disqualifications of Nonconformists, Jews, Atheists, &c., gradually abolished
Higher education thrown open to Dissenters—Its effects
The Established Church—Arguments for and against it changed
The modern case for an establishment
Strengthened by abolition of disqualifications
Enlargement of the limits of the Church—Relation of Nonconformists to it
Subscription to Articles—Indelibility of orders—Decisions of Privy Council
Decline of intolerance in continental legislations—Sweden
Limitation or modification of religious liberty
India
Early religious policy of the East India Company
Admission of missionaries in 1813
Prohibition of infanticide and human sacrifices
Attitude of Government towards caste and idolatrous worship
Changes in the laws of inheritance and marriage
Memorandum of Colonel Herbert Edwardes
Philanthropic tendencies hostile to the old beliefs
Indian education and its effects
Mormonism
Polygamy not its original doctrine
Utah becomes an American Territory—Its early history
Congress undertakes to stamp it out—The Edmunds law
Other measures against polygamy
Conflicting opinions about their success
Influences within Mormonism hostile to polygamy
Polygamy abandoned by the Mormons
Anglo-Saxon democracy favourable to religious liberty
The sentiment of nationality sometimes hostile to it
Catholicism and Democracy—Ireland
Growth of priestly influence in Irish politics
Historical causes that have contributed to it
Palmerston and Clarendon on the conduct of the priests in 1847
Character of priestly influence in Ireland—Complicity with crime
Perversion of Irish Catholic opinion
Recent legislation favourable to priestly influence
Continental Catholicism
Causes that have favoured the Ultramontane spirit
Disendowment and loss of temporal dignities strengthen sacerdotalism
Increased dependence of the priest on the bishop
Growth of Catholic enthusiasm—Pilgrimages, &c
Centralisation of Catholicism—Triumph of Ultramontanism
Which has made it more fit to act on democracies
Continued intolerance of the Church
It constitutes a State within a State—Its claims and powers
The general current not in the direction of priestly power
Illustrations from Rome, Brazil, and France
Conflicts with the lay power produced by the declaration of infallibility
Serious persecution of Catholics
Enters into alliance with the Pope
France—The battle of education: Its early phases
Educational policy of Napoleon I
Popular education passes mainly into the hands of the religious orders
Challemel-Lacour on the danger of priestly education
Recent French Ultramontanism—Veuillot
The Catholic party conspire against the Republic, May 1877
Defeated at the elections—Anti-Clerical reaction
The Supreme Council of Education remodelled
Law expelling Jesuits, &c., from the schools
Rejected by the Senate—The Ferry decrees
Violent measures that followed
Partial relaxation of the laws against unauthorised corporations
Tests of competence—Public schools made gratuitous and secular
Laws of 1881 and 1882
Primary education made obligatory
The case for purely secular State education
National education ought to be an elastic thing admitting different systems
Undenominational and united religious teaching in Protestant countries
Advantages of simple Bible reading
Education in the British colonies
The conflict between united secular and denominational systems
Religious result of the school-board system
The struggle for denominational State education in the Netherlands
Not likely to be permanent—Danger to the voluntary schools
Principles on which the Legislature should act—The opinion of parents to be most considered
The English compromise not possible in Catholic countries
Unsuccessful conflict with the Church in Belgium, 1878–84
Secular education stringently enforced in France
Hostility shown to religion—Attempt to de-christianise the nation
Arguments of the supporters of the system
Their violence defeated their ends
Sceptical Frenchmen often support religious education
Anti-Catholic spirit in French legislation
Divinity students and military service
The tension in education diminished—The irreligious spirit diminished
But ecclesiastical interference with politics stringently repressed
Review of the principles at issue
Catholicism likely to ally itself more and more with democracy
The downfall of the temporal power strengthens the tendency
Socialistic sympathies in the Church
Best remedies against undue priestly influence in politics
Sunday Legislation
Its observance in the early Church
Laws of Constantine and Theodosius
Sunday observance in the Middle Ages
The Reformers clearly distinguish it from the Sabbath
Growth of Sabbatarianism at the close of her reign
Strengthened by the prevalent disorders on Sunday
Signs of increasing Sabbatarianism—Dr. Bownd
Conflict between the two parties under James I
Laws suppressing Sunday amusements under Charles I
The Elizabethan Sunday not revived at the Restoration
Observance of Sunday in the eighteenth century
Effect of the Evangelical movement
Restriction of Sunday labour passing from a theological to a utilitarian foundation
Tendency to enforce it by law and custom on the Continent
Suppression of Sunday amusements—The Puritan Sunday
Its gradual mitigation in England—Sunday opening of museums, &c
State of public opinion on the subject
Sabbatarian provisions in the game laws
Wise legislation following opinion is seldom strictly logical
Relations of moral and penal legislation
The province of restrictive laws—Kant, Herbert Spencer, Mill
Their doctrines correspond to the Free Trade doctrine of Adam Smith
Arguments against legislative interference with acts not directly injurious to others
True as a general rule, but the prevailing tendency is to multiply exceptions
Examples of them in English law—How far law strengthens morals
Grounds on which laws suppressing immoral acts were originally proposed
Gambling
Craving for excitement the secret of its popularity
Capriciousness of English law in dealing with it
Suppression of public gambling-houses
Intoxicating Drink
Difficulties of legislating on this subject
Drunkenness not an increasing evil
Largely due to bad houses and bad cooking
To unhealthy or excessive labour
To the absence of other tastes and pleasures
To the want of provident habits
Judicious taxation can encourage sobriety
Distinction to be drawn in temperance legislation
Should simple drunkenness be treated as a crime?
Drunkenness sometimes preventible, sometimes not
Drunkenness a disease—Its medical treatment
Detention of inebriates in retreats—The Commission of 1893
Inutility of short sentences—Proposed reformatory treatment of drunkenness
Connection between drunkenness and crime
Less popular in England than in other English-speaking countries
Sunday closing—Shorter hours in public-houses
Liquor legislation in the United States
In the Scandinavian countries—The Gothenburg system
Experiment in South Carolina, 1892
Desire to diminish by law the temptation to drink—The Parish Councils Act
How far legislation should deal with spectacles or other amusements leading to vice
With noises and disfigurements in the streets
Distinction between things that are obtruded on the notice of all and things that are not
Marriage Laws
Early history of Christian marriage
Council of Trent first made a religious ceremony necessary
Survival of the old doctrine that simple consent constitutes marriage
Claims of the Catholic Church to rule marriage
Opinions of Catholic divines about Protestant marriages
The State considers marriage a civil contract
Legislation in France before the Revolution
Marriage Law of Henry VIII.—English common law
Divorce in England—Case of Lord Northampton
Divorce by special Acts of Parliament
English legislators treated as null marriages which were ecclesiastically valid
Purely civil marriage established by the French law of 1792
Its effect in simplifying marriages and removing disabilities
Various Forms of Imperfect Marriages and Marriage Disabilities
Patrician and plebeian marriages
Priestly connections in the Middle Ages
Disabilities in Germany—Prohibition of marriages without sufficient means
Invalidity of Protestant marriages in France
Of marriages celebrated by Nonconformist ministers in England
Of some marriages celebrated by priests in Ireland
Of purely religious marriages in some continental countries
Invalidities created by differences of belief
By differences of race or colour
Civil Marriage
In French law—Its rapid spread
Hostility of the Catholic Church
Character of civil marriage in England
In Germany, Italy, and Switzerland
In Scandinavian countries, Russia, Roumania
Divorce
Arguments for and against its permission
The Council of Trent absolutely condemned it
Catholicism admits many grounds of nullity
Divorce of Napoleon from Josephine
Divorce established in France on the widest system in 1792
Regulated and restricted by the Civil Code
Abolished in 1816, but retained in Belgium, the Rhenish Provinces, and Baden
Admitted in Austria for non-Catholics
Its increasing popularity in France
The Protestant and Greek Churches never wholly condemned it
Absurdity and injustice of the English system of granting it
Compared with Australian legislation
Examination of the effects of the Act
Divorce laws not a cause of national demoralisation
Their different types in Europe—Statistics of divorces
The natural right to marriage accompanies the secularisation of marriage
Restrictions only justified by grave dangers
Marriage with a deceased wife’s sister
Archaic element in modern Socialism
Condemnation of loans at interest
Absorption of individual rights by the State
The Sabbatical and Jubilee years of the Hebrews
Common property in the early Church
Socialistic tendencies of the Fathers
Influence of the monasteries—Mediæval organisation of industry
Social and economical convulsions at the Reformation
Literature of Utopias—More, Campanella, &c
Socialistic doctrines in Montesquieu
Morelly and Warville de Brissot
Economical effects of the French Revolution
Abolition of the jurandes and communautés
Rights of property recognised at the Revolution
Its hostility to all corporate industry
Their connection with the Suez Canal
His part in primitive co-operative industry
Socialist writings in France between 1830 and 1848
May be traced in Béranger and George Sand
Louis Blanc, ‘Organisation du Travail’
Socialistic character of the Revolution of 1848—Its first measures
Paralysis of industry—Depreciation of property—Growing anarchy
Attempts to dispose of the unemployed workmen
The Paris insurrection of June
Hatred of Paris in the provinces
Socialism produces reaction towards despotism
The Coup d'État, December 1851
Socialism in Germany
The centre of the movement passed from France to Germany
Marx—Foundation and progress of his doctrines
Socialist element in the French Commune
Decadence of the International
Programme of the Congress of Gotha, 1875
Socialists divided about the means of attaining their ends
No real difference in principle between the more and less violent sections
Criticism of his views—Giffen on English working-class progress
Leroy-Beaulieu on progress in France
Wages and moderate fortunes most rapidly increase
Conditions of working-class prosperity
Fallacies of Marx—Part played by capital in industry
The elements that contribute to wealth
Growth of Socialism in Germany
More slow in France—Profit-sharing industries
Programme of the Congress of Marseilles, 1879
Subdivisions of French Socialism
Economical condition of France not favourable to Socialism
Yet it has grown rapidly of late years
Continental Socialism differs from English Socialism in its attacks on religion and marriage
The moral aspects of Socialism
And in other continental countries
And in the United States—Writings of George
How far Socialism is likely to spread in the United States
Proposed extension of the industrial functions of municipalities
Fallacies that underlie such utopias
Socialism incompatible with free trade and international commerce
Socialism in England has not chiefly emanated from the working class
The Social and Democratic League
Tendencies that favoured Socialism
Socialist successes—Trade-union congresses
‘Nationalisation’ doctrines sanctioned by the Congress of Norwich, 1894
Exaggerations of the power of the New Unionism
Some doctrines of English Socialists
Connection of English Socialism with the agrarian movement in Ireland
Proposed absorption of railways, &c., by the State
Absorption of rent and interest by means of taxation
Effects of such a measure on national prosperity
Effects of taxation on the poor
Danger of exaggerated municipal employment
Some measures of the London County Council
What industries Government can manage
Effect of the free propagation of revolutionary opinions
Moral and religious aspects of English Socialism
The Factory Laws
For the protection of children
Laws for protecting adults against their own imprudence
Limiting the hours of labour of adults
The longest hours and least paid labour not the most productive
The eight hours day—Objections to it
Conflicts in poor men’s interests
Doctrine that inefficient labour increases employment
Trade-union policy tends to multiply the unemployed
International agreements about hours of labour—Foreign hours
Workmen usually prefer higher wages to shorter hours
Useful functions of trade unions
They have not, however, been the chief cause of the rise of wages
Supply and demand and ‘the living wage’
Repeal of the combination laws
Trade unions as corporations in most respects unrecognised by law
Some of the Labour Commissioners would change this
Growth of trade-unionism accompanied by increased legal regulation of industry
The good and evil of this regulation
Continental experiments—The Austrian guilds
Legislation to protect workmen from intimidating each other—General principles
The older trade unions usually in favour of peace
Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1871
Repealed in 1875—A new Act carried
Recommendations of the Labour Commission
Different forms of intimidation practised
Labour disputes likely to play a large part in municipal government
Efforts of trade unions to control municipal labour in England
Relations of employers to trade unions
Methods by which labour war is carried on by employers
Desire to use political power to handicap employers in labour disputes
Immigration of foreign pauperism
Legislation to help workmen in labour disputes
This policy one form of the prevailing spirit of Protectionism
Connection of Protectionism and wage questions in America
Strength of the conservative influence in English labour
Diffusion of working men’s property in France and England
This is the best guarantee against social revolution
Large number of the real owners of the soil
Value of the joint-stock system in diffusing capital
Co-operative industries—Causes of their frequent failure
More successful in distribution than production
Productive co-operation has, however, proved successful and useful
The industrial effects of education
Specially successful in France—Trade-unionism little developed there
The profit-sharing system favours large industries
Other Methods of Conciliation
Piecework—Payment by the hour—Conciliation and arbitration boards
Continental methods of settling labour disputes
English legislation about arbitration
Government encouragement of thrift
Division of land—Its difficulty and its necessity
England not well suited for peasant proprietors
The creation of peasant proprietors in Ireland
Changes in American agriculture
Peasant proprietors on the Continent
Influences likely to divide land in England
Attempts to multiply small proprietors by law—The Small Holdings Act of 1892
Attempts to bring back manufacturers to the country
The town properties—Desirability of multiplying freeholds
Socialists hostile to this policy
Moral Element in Labour Questions
Increased sense of the inequalities of fortune
The impatience of inexperienced democracy
Strengthening of the philanthropic side of religion
New sources of pleasure opened to the poor
Unearned incomes often the best used
Abuse of wealth that most endangers society
Inconsistency of Rousseau about women’s rights
His estimate of the position of women
Effect of the destruction of domestic industries and growth of factories
Separate female interests in factory legislation
Causes of the lower wages of women
Restrictions in their work partly due to trade jealousy
Present position of female labour—Case for a voice in legislation
Women under the factory system much affected by politics
In some respects unfavourable to women—New female employments
Woman’s part in nursing and medicine
The teaching profession—Opening of British universities to women
Continental universities opened
Change of manners in the upper class
How far it is likely to influence character
Growing female influence in political life
Legal position of mothers—Acts of 1839, 1873, 1886
Protection of married women’s earnings
Continental laws on married women’s earnings and property
The law unduly favoured the rich
Disparities of property—Religious education
Austrian law on mixed marriages
Obstacles to opening professions in England—Laws favouring women
Mill’s advocacy of female suffrage
Large number of suffrages conceded to British women
Arguments against Female Suffrage
Part played by women in public life
Other fields of female administration
Argument from deficiency of physical force
The alleged danger to female character
Women already prominent in politics
Effects of the ballot on the question
Anomaly of the exclusion of women from the franchise
Early history of female suffrage
Countries in which it has been adopted
