Читать книгу Aether and Gravitation - William George Hooper - Страница 25

All that is required is a wooden box, about one cubic foot in size, with a round hole perforated in one of the sides, and the opposite side covered with a piece of linen in place of the wooden side. The bottom of the box should then be covered with some strong solution of ammonia, and some hydrochloric acid poured into a saucer and put into the box. The combination of these two will cause thick clouds to form in the box, and if the linen is sharply tapped by the hand, a ring of this cloud will be forced through the hole on the opposite side of the box. The ring so formed will be circular in shape, and will go sailing through the room in which it is made.

When the hole is circular, the rings will be found circular also, but if the hole is square, then the rings will be irregular in shape. One remarkable characteristic about these rings is, that when two of the rings are travelling in the same straight line, the one behind will overtake the front one, and while so doing, the diameter of the front one is enlarged, while that of the one behind contracts. The front one will also travel slower, while the one behind travels faster until it has caught up the former, and then the latter, having contracted sufficiently, will pass through the diameter of the former as illustrated in the figure. This alternation of contraction and expansion is continued as long as the two rings move in the same plane and until they are destroyed. When, however, the two rings are moving in opposite directions, and meeting each other in the same straight line, they will repel one another, instead of attracting each other.

Their rate of progress is gradually reduced as they approach together, and they begin to expand and enlarge, but they never touch each other. Another peculiar feature about the rings consists in the fact, that the central core of air in the ring remains the same all the time the ring is in motion through the room, so that it has the same core of air at the end of its journey as it had when it left the box.

As Lord Kelvin pointed out, if there were no friction of the air, the ring once created would rotate for ever. If, therefore, there were such a thing as a perfect fluid, and there were vortex rings in it, nothing could destroy these rings when once they were created, and this is one of the most striking suggestions with reference to the Vortex Atom theory of matter. It remains to be seen whether in the universe we have such a medium as a perfect fluid.

Sir Wm. Thompson has applied the Vortex Atom theory of matter to the Aether, but from mathematical calculation he was unable to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion as to the Aether being composed of vortex atoms.

Another remarkable property belonging to these rings, lies in the fact that they cannot be cut in two. It will be found that when the knife is brought near to them, they seem to recoil from the knife. In that sense, it is literally an atom, a thing which cannot be cut in two.

The Vortex Atom has many recommendations in its favour. Many of the most important properties of matter are possessed by it, as for example indestructibility, elasticity, inertia, compressibility, and its incapability to be cut in two. Further, it may be linked with another ring, and so give the basis to the combining properties of atomic weights.

The Vortex Atom theory is simple in character, as it does not postulate any extravagant hypothesis, but makes use of the Aether as the common basis for all matter, simply stating that this property of rotation may be the basis of all that we call matter. We shall further consider the relation of the Vortex Atom to matter, when we deal with the constitution of matter and the unity of the universe.

Art. 35. Elements of Matter.--As is well known, modern chemistry has succeeded in reducing all the complex forms of matter in Nature into a number of simple substances, which are called elements. Of these elements about seventy are at present known, some of which, however, are very rare. An element therefore is a simple substance which cannot be decomposed by any known force or process, as heat or electricity, into other elements.

There are, however, only about fourteen of these elements that enter largely into the constitution of the earth, the most common being oxygen and silicon. By the use of the spectroscope, it has been proved that many of these elements, as for example oxygen, hydrogen, sodium and calcium, exist in the sun and stars, as well as in the most distant nebulae. Most of the elementary bodies are to be found in a gaseous form as hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine and chlorine, though it has been found possible to liquefy even these gases. Thus we see that matter may be roughly divided into three states, viz. solid, liquid, or gaseous.

The condition in which the substance is found depends upon its temperature and pressure. An example of matter in its three stages is best shown in the case of water, where in the solid condition we have it as ice, in the liquid condition as water, and in the gaseous condition as steam.

By recent researches it has been found possible to liquefy gases at a very low temperature and increased pressure, with the result that now nearly all known gases as hydrogen, oxygen, and carbonic acid are to be obtained in liquid form. By still more recent experiments made by Professor Dewar, it has even become possible to liquefy the air we breathe, with the result that at a temperature of about 270 degrees below freezing-point and at an increased pressure, the otherwise invisible and gaseous air may be changed into a liquid, and poured out from one vessel into another in the same way that water can be poured out. A vessel, however, at the ordinary temperature into which such liquid air is poured, would be so hot compared with the coldness of the liquid air, that as soon as the exceedingly cold liquid air came into contact with the vessel, the comparatively hot vessel would make the liquid air to boil.

Art. 36. Three Divisions of Matter.--Matter has been divided into three divisions, viz. solid, liquid, and gaseous. These divisions are each known by characteristic qualities, which separate the one division from another. At the same time, it is possible for matter to pass from one division into another, as for example in the case of water, which may exist in solid, liquid, and gaseous form. In view of the recent researches of Sir. Wm. Crookes and Professor J. J. Thompson, it is very probable that before long we shall have to add a fourth division to matter, which we should have to call ultra-gaseous form, or it may possibly be the aetherial form. If it should prove to be true that Aether is matter, and possesses the essential qualities of matter as suggested by Lord Kelvin, then certainly we shall have reached the boundary of another great division of matter, and our conception of the divisions of matter will have to be enlarged to take in that form, so that matter would then be divided into four great divisions, viz. solid, liquid, gaseous, and aetherial.

We will now consider the three groups as at present recognized.

Solid.--Examples of solid bodies are common and familiar, and are typified by such things as iron, silver, copper, and lead. The chief characteristic of this condition of matter is that its condition or state is fixed, and cannot be altered without the expenditure of heat or electricity or some other form of energy.

All solid elementary substances, with the exception of carbon, can be melted or reduced to a molten condition, although some of them require a very high temperature to effect this reduction, as, for example, platinum. When a still higher temperature is applied, the metals may be vaporized, or reduced from a molten state to that of a vaporous condition. In the case of solids, the atoms have not a free path in which to move. It must not be thought, however, that the atoms of a solid are motionless, as there is nothing absolutely motionless in the universe. In the case of the solid, the molecules which compose it, preserve their relative position and are linked together in relation to each other by the force of Cohesion.

Liquid.--When matter is in a liquid condition, as, for example, water and oil, the condition of its molecules are not so fixed and stable as they are in the solid state. The molecules can move freely about one another, and their freedom is increased compared with their condition when in the solid state.

As already indicated, the reduction of a solid body to a liquid or molten state may be effected by heat. When heat is applied to a solid body, several results follow, each of which is the outcome of the other.

1. There is an increase of temperature which is due to the increased energy of the molecules, through the added heat.

2. There is an enlargement of the volume or size of the body, and if the addition of heat be continued, the molecular forces which hold the molecules together are broken down, and then the molecules, loosened from those forces which in the solid state have bound them together, begin to move about with greater freedom, and thus give rise to the molten condition of metals, or liquid condition of water. Thus, it is the heat which has set the atoms which compose the molecules in motion. The atoms of the solid have absorbed the heat, and the heat which has thus been absorbed has imparted vibratory energy to the atoms, which they did not possess before. Now when a substance is in the liquid state, the atoms of that substance have not only a vibratory motion, but have also a translatory motion, so that they can move in and out among one another. This is proved by the phenomenon of diffusion, where we have the case of two different-coloured liquids, for example, intermingling with each other, which is conclusive evidence of the translatory motion of the atoms in liquids.

Gaseous.--The third state in which matter is found is the gaseous state. In this condition, the particles of matter which form the gas have the greatest possible freedom of movement, and are able to move about with inconceivable velocity. There is abundant evidence to prove that gases consist of particles of matter which are perfectly free, and are able to fly about in all directions. The simplest proof is obtained by mixing two gases together, as, for example, when any gaseous substance is allowed to mix with the air of a room, when we find that the particular gas soon mixes itself thoroughly with all the air in the room. This process of mixing is known as Diffusion, and the lighter a gas is, the more quickly does it diffuse itself. The rate of movement of the various particles is varied, by reason of the encounters which each particle undergoes from time to time. Through experiments made by Joule, he arrived at the conclusion that particles of hydrogen attained a velocity of 6055 feet per second at 0° C., which is a velocity much greater than that of a cannon-ball. In spite of the enormous velocity with which a particle of hydrogen would move, there are such a large number of particles in a single cubic inch of space, that no one particle has an absolutely free path from the one side of the enclosed space to the other. To this constant movement of the individual particles is due the elasticity or pressure of gases. The outward pressure which they exert on any body which encloses the gas is caused by the total effect of the impact of the particles, and is proportional to the sum of their masses multiplied into the square of their velocities. If we halve the enclosed space, then we should double the number of impacts in a given time, so that the number of impacts is inversely as the volume of the gas. This is equivalent to the statement, that the pressure of a gas varies inversely as its volume, which is Boyle and Marriotte's Law.

Art. 37. Matter is Gravitative.--If there is one property which is essentially characteristic to all matter, it is that all matter is gravitative. To this rule there is no exception, as the universal Law of Attraction states that “every particle of matter attracts every other particle.” Thus, wherever in the whole universe there is a particle of matter of any kind or sort, whether such matter be solid, liquid, or gaseous, there the force of attraction will be exerted with a force proportionate to the mass of the particle, and inversely as the square of the distance between the attracted particles.

Gravitation, then, is a property which is essentially inherent in matter, and any substance which is termed matter, or fulfils the conditions that govern matter, must be gravitative, whatever other property it may, or may not, possess. Unless this be so, we should have a violation of the universal Law of Gravitation, which would cease at once to be a universal law, for instead of reading “every particle of matter attracts every other particle,” we should have to say that “some particles of matter attract some other particles,” which would be a violation of that universal law which, through the genius of Newton, has given to the universe an unity from the philosophical standpoint that it did not possess before.

Some matter may, or may not be elastic; it may, or may not be solid, or liquid, or gaseous; but there is this fact regarding matter which is absolutely undeniable, and that is, “All matter is gravitative.”

That this is true of each and all kinds of matter has been proved by direct experiment times without number, and the constant application of the law to all forms of matter is a fact observable from the phenomena incidental to every-day life. Astronomical observation teaches us also, that all stars, suns, planets, satellites, and comets are subject to this great Law of Gravitation, as indeed they must be if they are composed of matter. That they are all composed of exactly similar elements of which the earth is composed, has been proved again and again by spectroscopic analysis, which teaches that hydrogen, iron, and calcium, etc., are to be found in distant stars and nebulae, as they are equally to be found in the composition of the earth. Thus throughout the wide universe so far as observation and experiment can teach us, we learn that without any exception, everything that is termed matter is subject to this universal Law of Gravitation.

Art. 38. Matter possesses Density.--Density is that property of matter which decides the weight of a body per unit of volume.

The density of any substance may be shown in several ways. It may denote, first of all, the number of molecules in a given body. Let us take as an illustration, the case of air being forced into a vessel of a given size, say one cubic foot capacity. We will suppose that in such a vessel there are 1,000,000 molecules. If we pump in a quantity of air equal to the amount it contained at first, then it is obvious that we have doubled the number of molecules in the same vessel, and therefore we say we have doubled the density. Not only so, but the weight of the air in the vessel will have been doubled. Looked at from this standpoint, density means the number of molecules in unit volume such as a cubic inch, or cubic centimetre.

Again, as has already been shown in Art. 35, the different elements have different atomic weights. Thus an atom of carbon weighs twelve times as much as an atom of hydrogen, that is to say, there are twelve times as much matter by weight in an atom of carbon as there is in an atom of hydrogen, so that it would take twelve times as many hydrogen atoms to weigh a pound as compared with the number of atoms of carbon. This is only another way of stating that carbon has twelve times the density of hydrogen. If we compare lead and silver with hydrogen in the same way, we find that the density is 206 times and 107 times greater than that of hydrogen.

Thus, it may be seen, that all matter possesses density, and that that density depends partly upon its atomic constitution. If the molecule of matter is composed of atoms whose atomic weights are very large compared with that of hydrogen, as iron, silver, lead and gold, then the molecules will have a much greater density, than a molecule formed of oxygen and hydrogen, i.e. water. This property of the density of matter plays a most important part in the transmission of any kind of wave-motion.

Art. 39. Matter possesses Elasticity.--Matter possesses elasticity. Elasticity is that property of matter which enables all bodies to resume their original shape, when the pressure which has caused the alteration of shape has been removed.

For example, suppose an ivory ball be dropped upon a marble table, or any other hard surface. It will then rebound, and rise almost to the same height from which it was dropped. If the surface upon which it fell was first covered with blacklead, a circular spot of lead will be found on the ivory ball. From this fact, we arrive at the conclusion that when the ball came into contact with the table, at the moment of contact it was flattened, and then owing to its elasticity it rebounded into the air again.

Now the measure of the elasticity of a body is proportionate to the velocity of the wave-motion which it can transmit. A good illustration of the transmission of wave-motion may be shown with a number of ivory bagatelle or billiard balls. If eight or more of these be put in a row, all touching each other, and a single ball be placed about an inch or so away from the others in a straight line with them, then when the single ball is struck with a cue against the other eight, the motion of the single ball is transmitted by each one of the eight successively with such rapidity, that the end ball would be set in motion in a quicker time than a single ball would take to reach the end ball, if it had been free to move along without encountering any opposition.

It is a fact capable of demonstration, that the smaller the particle of matter, the greater will be its vibratory motion. Thus the particles of air are very, very small, and consequently air is found to be very elastic, and allows sound to be transmitted through it with comparatively great velocity, some sounds travelling at the rate of over 1000 feet per second.

A most important factor in determining the propagation of any wave-motion, through a gas or solid, is the relationship of the elasticity of the gas or solid to its density. Suffice to say, that the velocity of any wave-motion is determined by the relation of the elasticity to the density. For example, sound, which is a wave-motion of the air, can not only be transmitted through gaseous bodies as air, but also through liquids and solids. Sound travels faster through solids than through liquids, and faster through liquids than through gases. In liquids, the relation of the elasticity to density is greater than in air, and in solids the relation is greater still. Therefore sound travels much faster in liquids than in gases, and faster in solids than in liquids.

This is the reason why a train can be heard coming if the ear is put to the railway-line, when no indication of its approach is given to the ear by the atmosphere. Some examples of the velocities of sound through different substances are as follows--

Gases O. C. feet	Liquids. feet	Solids feet
Air1090persec.Oxygen1040""	Water4708persec.(8° C.).Alcohol4218""(20° C.).	Gold5717persec.Silver8553""

Art. 40. Matter possesses Inertia.--Inertia is that property of matter, by which matter cannot of itself alter, or change its state of motion, or of rest.

Newton's first law of motion states that a body at rest remains at rest until some force or motion acts upon it. If a stone be dropped from a balloon, the stone does not fall because of any property which it possesses, but because the force of gravity acts upon it. If it were possible to eliminate this force of gravity, then if there were no other force which could act upon the stone, it would remain suspended in space.

The inertia of a body is equal to the mass of that body, or the amount of matter in the body as measured by gravity, so that if a body is halved, its inertia will be halved also, and if doubled, its inertia will be doubled also. As the inertia of matter opposes all kinds of motion, the amount of force required to overcome the inertia of a body is proportionate to its mass. So that if the mass of a body is doubled, then twice the force would be required to move it, while if the body were halved, half the force would suffice to do it.

Inertia is possessed quite as much by a moving body as a body at rest. The definition given points this out, as it states that matter cannot of itself change its state of motion. If a body therefore is in motion, it requires a certain amount of resistance to bring the body to a state of rest, or the loss of an equal amount of energy, by friction or otherwise, equal to the quantity which it absorbed in order for it to be set in motion.

We get numerous examples of this property of the inertia of bodies in our daily experience. Many of the accidents that befall people in various ways are due to this property of the inertia of matter. A cyclist is riding a machine down-hill, and loses control over his machine, with the result that he runs into a wall, and is killed. Now what has happened? The cyclist has participated in the motion of the machine, with the result that when the machine has been suddenly stopped, the body has been thrown forward owing to the momentum it had acquired.

We are constantly being affected by the property of inertia of matter, in tram and train and bus. Whenever any of these are suddenly stopped, or suddenly started, we are thrown either backward or forward, owing to the body either not having acquired the motion of the train, or, having acquired it, is unable to lose its motion as quickly as the train, and is therefore thrown forward.