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Introduction to the Apostolic Fathers Commentary Series

Who Are the Apostolic Fathers?

The label “Apostolic Fathers” reflects a narrow collection of early Christian texts that generally date from the first and second centuries ce.1 The works of the Apostolic Fathers offer a remarkable window into early (especially second-century) Christianity, as communities forged their religious and social identities within the broader Graeco-Roman culture.2 As these early authors defined themselves and their readers in relationship to pagan culture, Jewish religiosity, and internal rivals, they ultimately influenced Christian movements for generations to come. Each book within the collection sheds unique light on the diversity of theology, worship, and life within nascent Christian communities.

The collection of Apostolic Fathers is an “artificial corpus” and a “modern construct.”3 Authors in antiquity did not use the label to describe such a collection.4 Some of the Apostolic Fathers appear in the fourth-century Codex Sinaiticus (Barnabas and Hermas) and the fifth-century Codex Alexandrinus (1 Clement and 2 Clement).5 Some were read in public worship, were cited as “scripture,” or were mentioned in the context of early canonical discussions.6 Codex Hierosolymitanus (1056 ce), which was discovered in 1873, contains the Didache, Barnabas, 1 Clement, 2 Clement, and a long recension of the Ignatian epistles.

Jean-Baptiste Cotelier produced the first printed edition of a collection akin to the Apostolic Fathers in 1672.7 Cotelier’s Latin collection was titled SS. patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt; Barnabae, Clementis, Hermae, Ignatii, Polycarpi.8 Inclusion within the collection was thus associated with an assumed historical connection to the times of the apostles (temporibus apostolicis). Within the text of his work, Cotelier spoke of an Apostolicorum Patrum Collectio.9 In 1693, William Wake put forth an English edition of the Apostolic Fathers: The Genuine Epistles of the Apostolical Fathers: S. Barnabas, S. Ignatius, S. Clement, S. Polycarp, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Martyrdoms of St. Ignatius and St. Polycarp.10 In 1699, Thomas Ittig abbreviated Cotelier’s Latin title to Bibliotheca patrum apostolicorum Graeco-Latina.11 Early commentators continued to insist that at least some of the apostolic fathers had contact with the original apostles.12

Andreas Gallandi added the Letter to Diognetus, extant material from the Apology of Quadratus, and the Papias fragments to the corpus of the Apostolic Fathers in 1765.13 The Didache, since its rediscovery in the nineteenth century, has regularly accompanied the collection as well.14 The scholarly work of J. B. Lightfoot, Theodore Zahn, and others elevated the “middle recension” of Ignatius’s epistles as the preferred form of the Ignatian correspondence.15

In the Anglophone world, the “most readily available” and “widely used” editions of the Apostolic Fathers are Bart Ehrman’s entry in the Loeb Classical Library (2003) and Michael Holmes’s thorough revision of Lightfoot and Harmer’s work, now in its third edition (2007).16 Both Ehrman and Holmes include the Didache, 1 Clement, the fragment of Quadratus, the seven letters of the middle recension of the Ignatian correspondence, Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians, the fragments of Papias, the Epistle of Barnabas, 2 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Martyrdom of Polycarp, and the Epistle to Diognetus. This list of eleven has attained somewhat of a quasi-canonical status within Apostolic Fathers studies, though a few works float in and out of the boundaries of investigations within the field.17 Although early modern scholars tended to insist upon the direct contact of the apostolic fathers with the apostles, contemporary scholars recognize the phenomenon of pseudepigraphal attribution within the corpus, and they acknowledge a diverse notion of “apostolicity” within the primary source texts themselves.18

Why Are the Apostolic Fathers Important?

The works of the Apostolic Fathers represent a spectrum of literary genres, including a church manual (Didache), occasional letters (1 Clement, the Ignatian correspondence, Polycarp’s Epistle to the Philippians), a theological tractate in epistolary form (Barnabas), apocalyptic and visionary materials (Hermas), a martyr narrative in epistolary form (Martyrdom of Polycarp), a homily (2 Clement), an apology with appended homiletic material (Diognetus), and fragments of both expositional and apologetic works (Papias and Quadratus).19 The Apostolic Fathers also represent a wide range of geographical provenance and intended audience, pointing interpreters to early Christian communities in locations scattered throughout the Roman Empire, such as Corinth, Philippi, Rome, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Syria.20

The Apostolic Fathers reflect variegated facets of early church life and organization, theological and liturgical development, spirituality and prayer, moral instruction and identity formation.21 The Apostolic Fathers are important witnesses to the transmission and consolidation of earlier traditions, including the reception of the scriptures (both the Hebrew Scriptures and works now found in the New Testament).22 A number of the apostolic fathers draw from Jesus traditions and especially the Pauline letters.23 For example, Papias hands on traditions concerning the origins of the Gospels, and Polycarp seemingly provides evidence of the reception of 1 Timothy, 1 Peter, and 1 John.24 The Apostolic Fathers provide insights into biblical interpretation, as well as valuable assistance with linguistic and philological investigations.25

The Apostolic Fathers do not delve deeply into philosophical theology but rather address specific pastoral concerns in particular contexts.26 They reflect a diversity of theological perspectives and emphases, although sharing a common yet malleable core kerygma. The works assume the role of the one God as Creator and Ruler, and they proclaim Jesus Christ as the crucified, risen, and exalted Lord.27 Relatively fewer texts discuss the Holy Spirit’s continuing work in the ekklesia, while some warn of the continuing threats of satanic opposition.28 The Apostolic Fathers underscore future resurrection and judgment. They center salvation in the person and work of Christ, although differing in their explanations of grace and human response.29

The Apostolic Fathers serve as a window into theological trajectories and themes that emerged in early Christianity. Specific developments include the incorporation of the “Two Ways” literary tradition (Didache, Barnabas), apostolic succession (1 Clement), the Eucharist as sacrifice and medicine (Didache, Ignatius), a threefold ministry resembling monoepiscopacy (Ignatius), emphatic Sunday observance (Didache, Ignatius, Barnabas), baptism as a seal (2 Clement), stipulations concerning postbaptismal sin and repentance (Hermas), the metaphor of the church as the “soul” within the world (Diognetus), references to the “catholic church” (Ignatius, Martyrdom of Polycarp), and an incipient veneration of martyrs (Martyrdom of Polycarp). The apostolic fathers confronted so-called docetic and judaizing opponents (Ignatius, Polycarp), as well as pagan critics (Quadratus, Diognetus). The Apostolic Fathers illuminate differing courses of the “parting of the ways” between Judaism and Christianity.30

What Is the Apostolic Fathers Commentary Series?

The Apostolic Fathers Commentary Series (AFCS) proposes to offer a literary and theological reading of individual works among the Apostolic Fathers corpus. Although the compositional development and textual history of some of the texts are quite complex, the series offers a literary and theological reading of the final form text in an intelligible fashion for a broad audience.

Each volume in the series will offer a similar, two-part structure. Part 1 will include introductory essays, and part 2 will consist of exegetical, theological, and historical commentary on the final-form text in a section-by-section format. In the first part, each volume will include an essay on preliminary matters, such as historical placement, provenance, and social setting; an essay on the use of scripture; and an essay on themes and theology. All volumes will offer a fresh and readable translation of the text, along with brief textual notes.

The AFCS is designed to engage historical-critical scholarship and to synthesize such material for a wide range of readers. The series will make use of international scholarship, ancient languages (with English cotranslations), and primary research, aiming to elucidate the literary form of the text for students and scholars of earliest Christianity. The exegesis of AFCS will engage grammatical, rhetorical, and discourse features within the given work. In particular, the series will expansively discuss the elements relevant to theological interpretation of the texts. The AFCS thus seeks to fill a niche by offering a theological and literary reading of the Apostolic Fathers in both an economical and accessible form for a wide readership.

Paul A. Hartog

Shawn J. Wilhite

AFCS Series Editors

1. Jefford, Reading the Apostolic Fathers, xvii. Some scholars have dated the Letter to Diognetus or the Martyrdom of Polycarp into the third century. See Moss, “On the Dating of Polycarp.”

2. Jefford, Apostolic Fathers.

3. Foster, Preface to Writings of the Apostolic Fathers, vii.

4. According to Robert Grant, the term “Apostolic Fathers” was employed by the Monophysite Severus of Antioch in the sixth century, but not of a collection of writings as now recognized. See Grant, “Apostolic Fathers’ First Thousand Years,” 421, 428.

5. Batovici, “Apostolic Fathers in Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus.”

6. See Bingham, “Senses of Scripture in the Second Century”; Steenberg, “Irenaeus on Scripture, Graphe, and the Status of Hermas.”

7. Lincicum, “Paratextual Invention of the Term ‘Apostolic Fathers’.”

8. Cotelier, Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt.

9. For this and related history, see Fischer, Die ältesten Ausgaben der Patres Apostolici.

10. Wake, Genuine Epistles of the Apostolical Fathers.

11. Rothschild, “On the Invention of Patres Apostolici,” 9. See Ittig, Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum Graeco-Latina.

12. Jefford, Reading the Apostolic Fathers, xvii.

13. Gallandi, Bibliotheca veterum partum antiquorumque scriptorium ecclesiasticorum (1765).

14. Jefford, Reading the Apostolic Fathers, xix.

15. Lightfoot, Apostolic Fathers, I.1 and I.2; Zahn, Ignatius von Antiochien. For a history of this debate, see Hartog, “Multifaceted Jewel.”

16. Jefford, Reading the Apostolic Fathers, xiii. See Ehrman, ed., Apostolic Fathers; and Holmes, Apostolic Fathers.

17. See Pratscher, “Corpus of the Apostolic Fathers.”

18. Khomych, “Diversity of the Notion of Apostolicity in the Apostolic Fathers.”

19. Tugwell, Apostolic Fathers (2002); Jefford, Reading the Apostolic Fathers.

20. See Trevett, Christian Women and the Time of the Apostolic Fathers.

21. Koester, “Apostolic Fathers and the Struggle for Christian Identity”; Kenneth Berding, “‘Gifts’ and Ministries in the Apostolic Fathers”; Jefford, “Prophecy and Prophetism in the Apostolic Fathers”; Borchardt, “Spirituality of the Apostolic Fathers.”

22. Pratscher, “Die Rezeption des Neuen Testament bei den Apostolischen Vätern”; Jefford, Apostolic Fathers and the New Testament (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2006); Gregory and Tuckett, eds., Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers; Norris, “Apostolic and Sub-Apostolic Writings”; Oxford Society of Historical Theology, The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers.

23. Young, Jesus Tradition in the Apostolic Fathers; Lindemann, “Apostolic Fathers and the Synoptic Problem”; Still and Wilhite, eds., Apostolic Fathers and Paul.

24. Lookadoo, “Polycarp, Paul, and the Letters to Timothy”; Hartog, “Opponents in Polycarp, Philippians, and 1 John.”

25. Trigg, “The Apostolic Fathers and Apologists.” A valuable linguistic tool is Wallace et al., eds., Reader’s Lexicon of the Apostolic Fathers.

26. Lawson, Theological and Historical Introduction to the Apostolic Fathers.

27. Stark, Christology in the Apostolic Fathers; McGuckin, “Christ: The Apostolic Fathers to the Third Century.”

28. Marshall, “Holy Spirit in the Apostolic Fathers”; Burke, “Satan and Demons in the Apostolic Fathers”; Farrar, “Satanology and Demonology in the Apostolic Fathers.”

29. Bounds, “Understanding of Grace in Selected Apostolic Fathers”; Whitenton, “After ΠΙΣΤΙΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΥ”; Bounds, “Doctrine of Christian Perfection in the Apostolic Fathers.” See also the influential but now dated work by Thomas F. Torrance, The Doctrine of Grace in the Apostolic Fathers.

30. Robinson, Ignatius of Antioch and the Parting of the Ways; Lanfranchi, “Attitudes to the Sabbath.”