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Agassiz, Louis (1807–1873).Born in Switzerland, he was initially educated at home and later at more formal schools. He attended university at Zürich, Heidelberg and Munich. He received his PhD in 1829 from Erlangen and MD from Munich in 1830. In 1832, Agassiz was appointed professor of natural history at the University of Neuchâtel. He was appointed Professor of Zoology and Geology at Harvard University where he stayed until his death. In 1850, he married Elizabeth Cary, his second wife. His married his first wife, Cecilie Braun, the sister of one of his college friends, in 1833. They had three children.Agricola,see BauerAnaximander (611–547 BCE).A Greek philosopher from Ionia, Anaximander was a pupil of Thales. Although his writings did not survive the vicissitudes of history, he is credited by third parties with many ideas new for his age. He speculated on the origins of the earth and of man. Appreciating the curvature of the horizon he imagined the earth as cylindrical and poised in space.Anning, Mary (1799–1848).Born in Lyme Regis, Mary's father supplemented his income by searching for fossils in the coastal cliffs that could be sold. Mary carried on the tradition with notable finds, such as the Ichthyosaur, now in the Natural History Museum, London, in 1828 she discovered the first Plesiosaurus, and also the first Pterodactyl. She died, reportedly of breast cancer, and was buried locally. During her illness she was financially helped by the Geological Society of London.Aristotle (384–322 BCE).Born in Stagira, northern Greece he was the son of a doctor and a member of Plato's academy. Philip of Macedonia invited Aristotle to be tutor to his son Alexander. He retired to Euboea in 323 BCE.Bacon, Francis (1561–1626).His father was a Statesman and it was the intention that Bacon would follow the same path, starting with training in law. He became Lord High Chancellor in 1618 under James I. This success was short‐lived as he was banished from Court in 1621 for taking bribes. It is said that he was difficult to get on with and his writings were abstruse, but were influential in science and philosophy. Bacon's scientific work was very limited, but he was an advocate of the accumulation of data.Bateson, William (1861–1926).Born in Whitby, and although not regarded as a youth of any potential while at Rugby school, he gained a 1st Class degree at Cambridge in 1883. He then went to the USA to work and returned to the UK where, after some years teaching, he became director of the John Innes Institute. He was married to Caroline Durham and they had three children.Bauer, Georg (1494–1555).Often called Agricola, he was born in Glauchau, Saxony and became the rector Zwickau school. Although for a while he was a practising physician, his interest in mineralogy led him to become a mining engineer and pioneering mineralogist.Bede, Venerable (c. 673–735).Bede was born near Weremouth, Durham. At the age of about seven, he was given over to the care of the monastery of Wearmouth and then in 682 he moved to the monastery at Jarrow, becoming an ordained priest in 703. In his new position he became a renowned Anglo‐Saxon scholar, theologian and historian. In 1899, he was ordained.Beringer, Johann Bartholomew Adam (1667–1738).Born in Würzburg, he attended the university there, studying medicine. At the age of 27 he was appointed professor at the university and a year later became the keeper of the university botanical gardens.Beswick, Thomas (1753–1828)Beswick was born in Northumberland, the son of tenant farmers. He was the eldest of eight children. Although not academically gifted, he was quickly recognised as a skilled artist. When he left school at 14, he was apprenticed to a local engraver. He developed from an engraver of baronial cutlery to book illustrations. He became a partner in the engraving works in 1776, developing the reputation of the company as the finest of engravers. As well as his feelings against war, his moral code towards animals was exemplary, campaigning against docking of horses’ tails and cruelty to circus animals. Many of these issues appear in allegorical form in his engravings. He married in 1786 and had four children.Black, Davidson (1884–1934).Born in Toronto, he graduated in medicine in 1906 from the University of Toronto. He continued there as an instructor in anatomy. Between 1917 and 1919, he was in the Canadian Army as a medic, after which he went to work in Peking (Wade‐Giles), becoming head of anatomy in 1924. In 1913, he married Adena Nevitt and they had two children, both being born in Beijing.Boniface VIII (c. 1235–1303).His non‐ecclesiastical name was Benedetto Caetani. He became Cardinal in 1291, being elected Pope in 1294. It was his intention to reassert Papal authority over temporal powers, such as Edward I and Philip IV of France, who disregarded the papal bulls. Boniface VIII was briefly kidnapped in 1303 by the French at Anagni. Shortly after being released he died in Rome.Bourguet, Louis (1678–1742).Born in Nimes, Bouruet was a polymath, writing on many different subjects. He was Professor of Philosophy and Mathematics at Neuchatel.Boyle, Robert (1627–1691).The youngest of 14 children of the Earl of Cork, Robert was born in Ireland. Good at languages and algebra, he was tutored at home and then went to school at Eton. He travelled through Europe for six years and came back to his family estate in Dorset. In 1654, he moved to Oxford where Robert Hooke was his assistant. He was a director of the East India Company, an alchemist and a founder of the Royal Society.Brongniart, Adolphe (1801–1876).The son of geologist Alexandre Brongniart, Adolphe was a French botanist, born in Sèvres, France. He travelled widely in Europe while in his teens, with his father. In 1833, he became professor of botany at the National Museum of Natural History, Paris, a position that he held for the rest of his life.Bronn, Heinrich Georg (1800–1862).Bronn was born in what is now Heidelberg, where he attended the university. In 1837, he was appointed Professor of Zoology and became the head of the first Institute of Zoology at Heidelberg. He proposed a tree of life as a method demonstrating graphically the relationships between species and groups. He married Luise Penzel and they had five children.Broom, Robert (1866–1951).Born in Paisley, Scotland, Broom studied medicine at Glasgow University. After graduating in 1889, he travelled to Australia and then on to South Africa in 1897 where he settled. From 1903 to 1910, he was professor of Zoology and Geology at Victoria College, losing the position for advocating evolution. In 1934, he gave up medicine and was appointed palaeontologist at Transvaal Museum, Pretoria. He married Mary Baillie in 1893.Buckland, William (1784–1856).Buckland was born in Axminster and educated in Tiverton before going to Winchester College after which he won a scholarship to Corpus Christi Oxford. He was ordained as a priest in 1809 and in 1813 he was appointed reader in mineralogy as well. He married in 1825 a girl from Abingdon, Mary Morland, who was an accomplished illustrator in her own right. They had nine children, five of which survived to adulthood.Buffon, Georges‐Louis Leclerc Comte de (1707–1788).Born in Montbard, Burgundy, Buffon was left a considerable sum at the age of 7 by his uncle. Buffon attended the Jesuit college of Godrans in Dijon from the age of 10 and then, from 1723 he studied law at Dijon. In 1728, Buffon left Dijon to study mathematics and medicine at the University of Angers. With a large fortune he set himself up in Paris to study scientific subjects, initially mathematics but later the biological world. He was married and succeeded by a single child, a son. During the French Revolution, his tomb was ransacked for lead to make bullets.Burman, John.Little is known of Burman other than he joined Robert Plot as part of his family when Plot married Rebecca Burman soon after resigning his position at Oxford in 1690. Thus John became his stepson. In the second edition of Plot's Natural History of Oxfordshire, Burman made several additions.Burnet, Thomas (c. 1635–1715).Born in Croft, Yorkshire, Burnet was a clergy man who worked in the court of William III. He had to leave the position when his written work treated the account of The Fall as an allegory, not a literal story.Butler, Samuel (1835–1902).Born in Nottinghamshire and educated at Shrewsbury and St John's College Cambridge, he gave up the idea of joining the clergy and became a sheep farmer in New Zealand, leaving England in 1859 and returning in 1864. He painted and composed music as well as writing extensively. His financial independence was assured by a legacy.Chambers, Robert (1802–1871).Born in Peebles, Scotland, he joined with his brother, William, as a bookseller in Edinburgh. He developed his writing in his spare time, becoming a prolific producer of written work. In 1832, they formed the publishing house of W and R Chambers.Charriere, Henri (1906–1973).Born in the Ardeche, in 1931 he was convicted of murder and was transported to the French penal settlements of South America. After several failed attempts to escape in 1941, he finally made a successful escape to British Guiana (now Republic of Guyana). He eventually settled in Venezuela where he produced his now famous life story Papillon, although its veracity has been disputed. He died in Spain of oesophageal cancer.Collini, Alessandro Cosimo (1727–1806).Born at Manneheim into a wealthy famile, Collini was for many years secretary to Voltaire. He became the director of the Cabinet of Natural History in Manneheim and was the person who described the pterosaur which Cuvier later recognised as a flying reptile. He defended the Manneheim collection against destruction during the French revolution and some years later had it all transferred to Munich.Colonna, Fabio (1567–1640).A naturalist and botanist, he was proficient in both Greek and Latin before attending the University of Naples where he graduated in law in 1589. Unable to practice law due to epilepsy, he turned his attention to natural history and botany. During the period 1606–1616, he studied fossils. He corresponded with Galileo and he invented a stringed instrument, the pentecontachordon, which had 50 strings.Conybeare, William (1787–1857).Born in London and educated at Westminster School and in 1805 went to Christ Church, Oxford, studying classics and mathematics. Upon graduating he became a curate at various sites, culminating in the position of dean of Llandaff. His interest in geology continued throughout his life and was the subject of his election to FRS. He married once and had several children.Cope, Edward Drinker (1840–1897).Although well educated, Cope did not excel at school. His father installed him as a farmer, but he preferred a scientific career and attended University of Pennsylvania where he studied biological subjects. During the civil war of North America, Cope travelled in Europe, returning to Philadelphia in 1864, where he married Annie Pim in 1865. They had one daughter, Julia. Being involved with antagonistic competition with Othniel Marsh, Cope gradually lost much of his money, although he was never bankrupt.Courtney‐Latimer, Marjorie (1907–2004).Born in East London, in the Eastern Cape of South Africa, Courtney‐Latimer started training as a nurse, but gave up to take a job at East London Museum, South Africa, where she stayed for her entire career.Crichton, Michael (1942–2008).Born in Chicago and brought up in New York, he attended Harvard and graduated in biological anthropology. During this time he was already writing fiction. He attended Harvard Medical School and graduated in 1969, although he never practised medicine as his expressed intention had always been to become a writer and by this time had been published many times, not always under his own name. He was married many times – Joan Radam (1965–1970), Kathy St Johns (1978–1980), Suzanne Childs (1981–1983), Anne‐Marie Martin (1987–2003) and Sherri Alexander who he married in 2005.Cuvier, Georges (1769–1832).Cuvier was born in Montbeliard, the son of a soldier. He was educated in Stuttgart, originally for the Ministry, but a period as tutor to a family in Normandy confirmed his interest in natural history. Frome 1795 he taught in Paris at the Museum of Natural History. He became Baron Cuvier in 1831 and in 1832 became Minister of the Interior. His work in natural history helped to extend and establish the work of Linnaeus with the addition of the phylum to taxonomy. He was the first to classify fossil mammals and reptiles. He is probably best known for his skill in comparative anatomy, being able to relate organisms by their structure and in being able to reconstruct an animal from only a few key bones.Daguerre, Louis (1787–1851).Daguerre was born in France and started work as an apprentice to Pierre Prevost, a noted painter of panoramas. Daguerre joined Niepce, who had a basic method of photography, in 1829 and went on to develop the system after Niepce died, turning it into the daguerreotype. In exchange for a lifetime pension Daguerre sold the technique to the French government who then published the method, thereby making it generally available. Daguerre has his name inscribed as 1 of 72, on the base of the Eiffel Tower.Dart, Raymond Arthur (1893–1988).Born in Brisbane, he was the fifth of nine children. He originally went to the University of Queensland as the first intake at the new institution. He graduated in 1914 and the went on to qualify in medicine at University of Sydney in 1917 he served in the army before moving to the University of Witwatersrand in 1922 where he was professor of anatomy. In 1921 he married Dora Tyree from Massachusetts, divorcing in 1934. In 1936 he married Marjorie Frew, librarian at Witswatersrand University, they had two children.Darwin, Charles Robert (1809–1882).Born and educated in Shrewsbury, he is most famous for originating the theory of evolution by natural selection. He studied medicine at Edinburgh University during 1825–1827, but then went to Cambridge in 1828 intending to study for the church. It was here he started his studies in natural history in earnest. He travelled aboard HMS Beagle between 1831 and 1836 gaining many samples and writing extensively on his return on biology and geology. In 1839 he married his cousin Emma Wedgewood, moving to Downe in Kent in 1842. The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection was published in 1859. The Darwin Building of University College, Gower Street, London, is built on the site of Darwin's London house.Darwin, Erasmus (1731–1802).Born near Newark and studying both at Cambridge and Edinburgh, he was a popular and skilled physician, originally in Lichfield. He was married twice and settled in Derby, where he founded a philosophical society. He was grandfather of Charles Darwin via his first wife.da Vinci, Leonardo (1452–1519).He was born at Vinci in Tuscany, out of wedlock. His early years were spent with his mother and then with his father. This complicated life resulted in Leonardo having 12 half siblings. Little detail is known of his early life, even though he is regarded as one of the greatest polymaths to have lived and interest in his life and work has never diminished. His early education was spent as an apprentice to a Florentine artist. His fame broadly lies with his artwork, although he worked in many areas of science and engineering. His scientific studies were empirical and his explanations of phenomena less rigorous than accurate, having little use for mathematics. He was famous when he was alive and his fame has never diminished.Dawkins, Richard (1941–).Born in Kenya, Dawkins moved to a family farm in the UK when he was eight years old. He went to Oundle Schooland Balliol College, Oxford, graduating in 1962. Working in California for a number of years, Dawkins returned to Oxford and from 1995 to 2008 was Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science. He has been married three times, Marian Stamp 1967, divorced 1984. Eve Barham, 1984, divorced after the birth of their daughter. Lalla Ward, 1992, separated 2016.Dawson, Charles (1864–1916).Born in Lancashire, he was the eldest of three sons. The family moved to Sussex when he was young. He became lawyer, like his father, with his collecting being a hobby. His premature death was due to septicaemia.Defoe, Daniel (1660–1731).Originally Daniel Foe, he was born in London of Presbyterian Dissenter parents and educated locally before being educated at a boarding school in Surrey. He was married for 50 years and had eight children. He worked as a merchant for any years and was also embroiled in politics, narrowly avoiding prosecution after the ill‐fated Monmouth rebellion of 1685. In 1703 he was held in a pillory for three days and then taken to Newgate Prison, finally being released. He wrote many satirical and political pamphlets and many tracts which are amongst the very first examples of journalism, although he is now primarily remembered for his full‐length books. He is buried in Islington, London.De La Beche, Henry Thomas (1796–1855).Born in London, he was brought up by his mother in Lyme Regis on the early death of his father. He was a friend of Mary Anning and an avid collector of fossils. He joined the Geological Society, being President in the season 1848/1849. In 1835 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey of Great Britain. He was elected FRS in 1819 and knighted in 1848. He founded the Geological Museum and the Royal School of Mines.de Maillet, Benoit (1656–1738).de Maillet was born into a noble family of Catholics where he received a classical education, although he did not attend university. He travelled widely during his life which allowed him to indulge his interest in geology and natural history. His career was as a diplomat, being French Consul General in Cairo where he studied the Pyramids, then went to Tuscanny and finally in 1715 to the Levant, that ill‐defined area of the east Mediterranean as far as Syria. From 1722 he produced manuscripts which would result in his seminal work Telliamed, his name spelt backwards. This was published in 1748, after his death.Democritus (c. 460–370 BCE).Born in Abdera in Thrace, he was a prolific author on many different subjects, although the only known works that survived were fragments on ethics. He developed the atomistic theory of Leucippus and was a considerable influence on his contemporaries. Karl Marx chose Democritus as the subject for his PhD thesis.Descartes, Rene (1596–1650).He was born in a small town near Tours, his home town now taking the name Haye‐Descartes. He was educated at a Jesuit College between 1604 and 1614. With enough of an inheritance to make him independent, he spent his life travelling. He was a serving soldier in Holland and Hungary for many years, leaving in 1621 and later settled in Holland for 20 years. He was persuaded to become tutor to Queen Christina of Sweden, but within five months he had contracted a lung complaint and died.Disraeli, Benjamin (1804–1881).Born in London and educated privately, he was articled to a solicitor. His first novel was published 1826. In 1837 he became MP for Maidstone. While he was an active member of parliament, he continued his writing. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer before becoming Premier. He was married to the widow of another MP, Wyndham Lewis.Doyle, Arthur Conan (1859–1930).Born in Edinburgh, he was educated in Edinburgh and in Germany. He studied medicine at Edinburgh and then started a practice in Southsea. He then went to London as an oculist. Both of these activities were financially unsuccessful. It was this which coaxed him to write. His initial Sherlock Holmes stories were serialised in Strand Magazine from 1891 to 1893. He was knighted in 1902. He was married twice having five children, two with his first wife and three with his second.Drake, Frank (1930–).Born in Chicago, he went to Cornell University on a Navy Reserve Officer Training Corps scholarship, where he studied astronomy. On graduating he was briefly at sea as an electronics officer. He then went to Harvard to study radio astronomy. His first wife was Elizabeth Bell, with whom he had three sons and with his second wife Amahl, two daughters.Dubois, Marie Eugene Francois Thomas (1858–1940).Born and raised im Limbourg, he studied medicine at the University of Amsterdam and taught anatomy at the art schools. To search for human remains he joined the Dutch East Indian Army as a surgeon to get to Java. He married and they had one daughter. In 1897 he was appointed professor of geology at the university.Durer, Albrecht (1471–1528).Born in Nuremburg, the son of a Hungarian goldsmith, he was apprenticed to the chief illustrator of the Nürnberg Chronicle where he worked until 1490. During the next few years he travelled widely and also married, this presaged a great period of creativity. Although renowned as a great painter, his engravings demonstrate a great sensitivity to the material that he is using and the possibilities and limitations of the technique. He can be seen as the inventor of etching as many of his engravings have lines enhanced by acid corrosion.Efremov, Ivan.See YefremovEmpedocles (c. 494–434 BCE).A native of Sicily, little is known of his life. He was born into a wealthy family and became an extremely accomplished orator. We know that a biography of him was written by Xanthus, but that is all that we know about it because it was lost in antiquity.Epicurus (341–270 BCE).Epicurus was born on the Greek island of Samos. His school was well known for eating simple meals and encouraging women members of the school. Although thought to have written a vast amount of material, very little has survived, some letters intact and some fragments. Most of his work is known from later writers reporting on his life. His philosophical ideas all but disappeared throughout the middle ages, finding a revival of interest in the twentieth century.Eratosthenes (c.276–194 BCE).Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician and astronomer born in Cyrene. He was in charge of the library at Alexandria and regarded as the greatest polymath of his time. Besides calculating the circumference of the earth, he wrote on geography and literary criticism. Only fragments of his work remain, secondary sources providing most of the information regarding his accomplishments.Figuier, Louis (1819–1894).Born in Montpelier, Figuier trained in medicine and became professor at L'Ecole de Pharmacie of Paris. He wrote extensively on matters scientific and held some extreme views. His wife was a writer of novels.Fitzroy, Robert (1805–1865).Born at Ampton Hall in Suffolk. At the age of 12, he entered the Royal Naval College and a year later, he joined the Royal Navy. He commanded the Beagle on its five‐year voyage with Darwin. Not long after arriving back in 1836, Fitzroy married Mary Henrietta O'Brien, they had four children. After the death of Mary, Fitzroy married Maria Smyth in 1854 and had one daughter. He became Member of Parliament (Tory) for Durham in 1841.Galilei, Galileo (1564–1642).Born in Pisa, as the son of a musician, he studied music before mathematics and physics. At 25, he was professor of mathematics at Pisa. After he had moved to Padua, Marina Gamba moved in with him. Although they never married, there were three children. He came into direct conflict with the Papacy and at the age of 69 was sentenced to house arrest. His life was filled with mathematical and scientific accomplishments for which he is justifiably remembered.Gesner, Conrad (1516–1565).Born in poverty in Zürich, Switzerland, he was sponsored to study theology and languages in France and medicine in Basel, later to become city physician in Zürich. His interests were wide and he is often considered a true polymath, writing on scientific matters as well as languages and bibliography.Gillray, James (1757–1815).Gillray was born in Chelsea, a trooper's son. It was in about 1784 that he became known as an engraver. His work contained many satirical ideas, for which he became justly famous. For the last four years of his life he was judged to be insane.Goldschmidt, Richard (1878–1958).Gldschmidt was born in Frankfurt and educated in the classical tradition, gaining a place at Heidelberg University, studying anatomy and zoology. He moved to University of Munich to study nematode histology but became interested in genetics. In 1909 he became professor at Munich and studied sex determination. In 1914 he was stranded in Japan with the outbreak of WWI. Travelling to the USA he was interred, returning to Germany in 1918. As the political situation worsened, he realised it was no longer safe for him in Germany, so in 1936 he moved to the USA becoming professor at Berkley, University of California.Gosse, Philip (1810–1888)Born in Worcester, Gosse went to North America in 1827. It was in Jamaica that he became a professional naturalist with a particular interest in coastal marine species, a subject which he expanded on when he returned to the UK.Gutenberg, Johannes Gensfleisch (1400–1468).Born in Mainz, he moved to Strasbourg where it is thought he trained and worked as a goldsmith from 1430 to 1444. About 1450 he entered into a partnership to fund a printing press. Five years later the partnership ended and his partner received the printing equipment in lieu of the unpaid debt. Gutenberg is credited with the invention of printing, although the details are not clear, his early products and development of the art were seminal.Haeckel, Ernst (1834–1919).Haeckel was born in Potsdam, studying in Würzburg, Berlin and Vienna and becoming professor of Zoology at Jena between 1862 and 1909. He travelled widely and wrote on many different biological subjects, being one of the first to produce a genealogical tree of life.Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse (1807–1894).Born in Bloomsbury, London, Benjamin was the son of an artist. His early education was in art and sculpture, only in his 20s did he become interested in natural history and geology. Hawkins was married to Mary Green in 1826, but left her and their children to enter a bigamous marriage with Francis Keenan with whom he had more children. After the death of Mary in 1880, he re‐married Francis Keenan, mainly to legitimise their children. Francis died in 1884.Herodotus (c.485–425 BCE).A Greek philosopher, Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus. He travelled extensively in and around Greece and the Mediterranean. He collected considerable information regarding history, geography and social motivations. This information formed the basis for his Histories. So comprehensive was his work that Cicero called him ‘the father of history’.Hokusai, Katsushika (1760–1849).Born in Tokyo, he was apprenticed to a wood‐engraver where he learnt the traditional commerative engraving technique, surimono. He quickly went his own way, moving into the more modern Ukiyoye style. His skill and versatility were renowned and he studied Dutch painting before his most famous illustrations were produced, from 1823 onwards.Homer.Homer is the name of an author of unknown provenance and debatable existence. It is not even certain whether the works attributed to the name were even written by the same person.Hooke, Robert (1635–1703).Born on the Isle of Wight, he moved to London in 1660 and in 1662 helped found the Royal Society. During the 1660s he formulated what we now know as Hooke's law, dealing with the elastic limit of materials, and realised a spiral spring could control a clock, although it was Huygens who produced the first working model. In 1665 he published Micrographia describing the compound microscope and coined the use of the word cell in the biological sense. He was unrivalled as an improver of instruments, such as the microscope, barometer and telescope. Although he was greatly respected, it is said that his cantankerous nature made him difficult to deal with.Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1817–1911).Born in Halesworth, Suffolk, Hooker was educated at Glasgow High School and Glasgow University where he studied medicine. His interests were botanical and after many fruitful expeditions overseas took over as director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, a position his father had held. He married Francis Henslow in 1851 and had seven children, two years after her death in 1874, he married Lady Hyacinth Jardine (this could be an example of nominative determinism) and had two sons.Hubbard, Bernard (1888–1962).Born in San Francisco, he studied at several American Jesuit colleges and seminaries before moving to Innsbruck in Austria where he studied theology and was ordained a priest in 1923. Returning to the USA he taught theology and geology, regularly travelling in Alaska. He was often criticised for his inaccurate geology, a similar reception was found when he started anthropological studies in Alaska. He was a renowned and popular lecturer.Hutton, James (1726–1797).Born in Edinburgh, he was originally apprenticed to a lawyer, but moved to the continent and studied medicine there, graduating at Leyden. He never practised as a doctor, returning to Scotland to take up farming. This did not hold him and for 14 years he amassed a large sum by extracting ammonium chloride from soot. This financial independence allowed him to return to Edinburgh and devote himself to science.Huxley, Thomas Henry (1825–1895).Huxley was born in Ealing, the son of a school master, nonetheless he only received two years of formal instruction, being mainly self‐taught. Having studied medicine at Charing Cross Hospital, he entered the Royal Navy Medical Service. After a four‐year voyage around Australia he returned to become a self‐employed science writer in 1850, and by 1854 was lecturing on natural history at the School of Mines. He worked extensivel in zoology and palaeontology. His employment at the school of mines made him sufficiently financially stable for him to marry his Australian girl friend from eight years previously. Of their seven children there was Sir Julian (biologist) Aldous (writer) and Sir Andrew (Nobel Laureate 1963).Johnson, Samuel (1709–1784).Always referred to as Dr. Johnson, he was a lexicographer, writer and critic. Born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, he was a keen reader from an early age in his father’s bookshop. He was educated at Lichfield Grammar School and Pembroke College, Oxford. After a period as a teacher, he moved to London where he made a living as a writer. He married a widow 20 years his senior, who died in 1752, plunging Johnson into depression. In 1755 his famous dictionary was published and although a lasting success, Johnson was short of money. In 1760 he was granted £300 a year for life by George III which gave him financial security for the first time.Kepler, Johannes (1571–1630).Kepler was the son of a mercenary. He studied theology at Tubingen, but was more interested in mathematics. It was mathematics that he taught at a protestant seminary in Graz. He was forced out of his position in 1600 on religious grounds. As a consequence, he joined Tycho Brahe and being unable to fit observations to the Copernican cosmology formulated his idea of elliptical orbits. He was also a keen astrologer.Kingsley, Charles (1819–1875).Born in Holne, Devon, and brought up at Clevelly in the same county. His tertiary education was at King's College, London, and Magdalen College, Cambridge. As an ordained member of the church, he held many ecclesiastical positions, including Chaplin to Queen Victoria. He was also Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University. Two years before he died, he was made canon of Westminster Abbey. He was married and had three children.Kircher, Athanasius (c. 1602–1680).He was born in Germany, the youngest of nine children, and attended the Jesuit college in nearby Fulda between 1614 and 1618, after which he joined the sect as a novitiate. He studied many subjects besides the standard curriculum, such as vulcanology and Hebrew. He was ordained a priest in 1628 and became Professor of ethics and mathematics at the University of Würzburg, where he also taught Hebrew. He was widely recognised as a polymath, publishing as he did, more than 40 significant works in many different fields.Kovalevsky, Vladimir (1842–1883).The youngest child of two, Vladimir was born in Belarus. He was educated in languages from a young age and made money translating printed matter while still a student. After graduation he joined the Department of Heraldry, during which he travelled in Europe and eventually settled in London. He married Sofia Korvin‐Krukovskaya in 1868 and returned to Russia in 1878, the year that their daughter was born. Unable to gain an academic position and having made some bad business decisions, Kovalevsky committed suicide.Kuhn, Thomas (1922–1996).Born in Cincinnati in the USA, he graduated with a bachelor’s degree in physics, followed by a masters and a PhD, all from Harvard College. After this he moved into history and philosophy off science, becoming professor of the History of Science at the University of California in 1961. Kuhn moved to Princeton University as professor of Philosophy and History of Science and then went to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology as Professor of Philosophy until his retirement. He was married twice and had three children with his first wife.Lamark, Jean‐Baptiste (1744–1829).Lamarck was born in northern France, the 11th child of the family. Upon the death of his father, he joined the French army, at the time stationed in Germany. He received a field commission at the age of 17 with a reduced pension due to injury. He started studying medicine, but gave up tp pursue an interest in botany. In 1778 Lamarck married Marie Delaporte. There were several children, but Marie died in 1792. The following year he married Charlotte Reverdy, who was 30 years younger than him. Charlotte died in 1797. In 1798 Lamarck married Julie Mallet, who died in 1819. In old age Lamarck lost his sight and when he died, the family needed financial assistance for a common grave of five years. After that the grave was dug up and the body disposed of in a lime pit.Lartet, Edouard Armand Isidore Hippolyte (1801–1871).Born in France, his father was a wealthy landowner. Before taking over the estates, Lartet studied law at Tolouse University. Being of independent means, Lartet spent most of his time in palaeontological investigations. He was made professor of palaeontology at the Jardin des Plantes in the same year he died.Leakey, Louis Seymour Bazett (1903–1972).The son of East African (now Kenya) missionaries, he studied anthropology at St John's College, Cambridge, and wrote extensively on African anthropology. He married Mary with whom he worked on archaeological digs in Africa.Leeuwenhoek, Antoinie van (1632–1723).Born in Delft, he was the first son of five children. He worked as a draper in Amsterdam until 1650 when he moved to Delft. He developd his own techniques for polishing single lenses of very short focal length, which magnified from 50× to 200×.Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646–1716).Born in Leipzig, Saxony, his father died when Wilhelm was six years old. In 1661, when he was 14 years old, he enrolled at the University of Leipzig. By 1664 he had been awarded a master’s degree in philosophy. After one‐year study he was awarded a bachelor’s degree in law in 1665. In 1666 he gained a doctorate in law (University of Altdorf) and a licence to practice. He was regarded as charming and humorous but due to various personal and diplomatic problems, at his death he was so out of favour with George I and the court that his funeral was poorly attended. His grave in Hanover was unmarked for 50 years after his death.Leidy, Joseph (1823–1891).Born in Philadelphia, his father wanted him to become a sign painter, instead he studied medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, graduating in 1844. He went on to become professor of anatomy at University of Pennsylvania and Professor of natural history at Swarthmore College. He married Anna Harden and had one adopted child.Le Mascrier, Jean‐Baptiste (1697–1760).A French clergyman, he was born in Caen, followed by a traditional theological education. In 1692 he met Benoit de Maillet in Egypt and edited his books.Leucippus (fifth century BCEE).A native of Miletus, he was the originator of the atomistic cosmology which was developed by Democritus. It has become almost impossible to separate the ideas of Leucippus from Democritus.Lhuyd (Lhwyd), Edward (1660–1709).Born in Shropshire, Lhuyd was the illegitimate son of a comfortably well off family from Wales. He attended and later taught at Oswestry Grammar School. He went to Jesus College, Oxford, in 1682, but did not graduate, joining the Ashmolean Museum as assistant to Robert Plot, later replacing Plot as Keeper. In 1701 he was awarded an honorary MA from Oxford University.Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778).Born in Råshult, Sweden, Carl was the son of a pastor. He studied medicine at Lund, but only briefly and then went on to Uppsala to study botany where he became lecturer in 1730. Having decided to earn a living as a physician, Linnaeus travelled to Holland to qualify in medicine in 1735, the year in which he published Systema Naturae, the foundation of modern biological nomenclature. He returned to Sweden in 1738 as a practising physician, becoming professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala University in 1741. In 1749 he introduced the binomial naming system still in use today.Loew, Friedrich Hermann (1807–1879).Born in Saxony, he attended the convent school of Rossleben followed by the University of Halle‐Wittenberg, where he studied mathematics and natural history. He was appointed lecturer in mathematics and natural history, becoming expert in entomology. He moved to Berlin as a teacher in these subjects. He travelled widely in the near and far east. In 1834 he married the daughter of a notable preacher.Lyell, Charles (1797–1875).Lyell was born in Kinnordy, Forfarshire, the son of a mycologist, also named Charles. Educated in Salisbury and Exeter College, Oxford, where he studied law but developed an interest in geology from attending lectures by William Buckland. On graduating he worked as a lawyer. In 1827 Lyell ceased to work in the law and took to full‐time geology. During the 1830s he was Professor of Geology at King's College, London.Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich (1898–1976).Born in Ukraine, Lysenko initially worked at Kiev Agricultural Institute, developing a completely wrong idea of genetics based loosely on the ideas of Lamarck. The difference between the two was that due to the political turmoil and scientific ignorance of the political leaders of Russia, Lysenko became a leading figure and set back biology in the USSR by half a centuryMantell, Gideon (1790–1852).Mantell was born in Lewes, Sussex, where he secured an apprenticeship at the age of 15, with a local surgeon. After five years he started his formal medical training in London. Upon graduation he returned to Lewes and started practising as a medic in the local practice. He married Mary Ann Woodhouse in 1816, they had two children, Walter and Hannah. Mary left Gideon in 1839. Having been involved in a carriage accident, Mantell regularly took opium for pain relief and it was an overdose of opium which finally killed him.Marsh, Othniel Charles (1831–1899).Born into a farming family in New York state, his education was financially helped by his uncle and a scholarship place at Yale. From there he travelled to Berlin to continue his studies in palaeontology. When he returned to the USA, he was appointed Professor of Vertebrate Palaeontology at Yale, the first such position in the USA. He received a large legacy from his uncle, which made him financially independent and able to pursue his expensive field expeditions. Marsh was a significant protagonist, along with Edward Cope, in the ‘bone wars’ of the USA.Mayr, Ernst (1904–2005).Born in Bavaria, his father died when he was 13 years old, and the family moved to Dresden. He went to university at Greifswald, initially to study medicine but he changed to biology quite quickly. After field trips to New Guinea, he returned to Germany and in 1931 took a position at the American Museum of Natural History. He went to Harvard University in 1953, retiring in 1973 as Emeritus Professor of Zoology. He was married to Margarete, with whom he had two daughters.Mercati, Michele (1541–1593).Born in Tuscany, he went to the University of Pisa, studying medicine and philosophy. His important works were not published until more than a century after his death, when his ideas were already being developed.Mendel, Gregor Johann (1822–1884)A farmer’s son, at the age of 21 he entered the Augustinian monastery at Brno, being ordained 4 years later. He studied science for two years at Vienna from 1851, after which he started his experiments in plant hybridisation, which he continued until he became Abbot in 1868. He did not do well at examinations and it was 16 years after his death that the significance of his results was understood.Meyer, Christian Erich Hermann von (1801–1869).Meyer was born in Frankfurt am Main with club feet, this restricted his movement. He worked initially in a glassworks and then as an apprentice in a bank. Between 1822 and 1827 he studied finance and natural science at Heidelberg, Berlin and Munich. When he returned to Frankfurt, he applied himself to palaeontology. However, in 1837 Meyer joined the Bundestag in the financial administration, which meant that his palaeontology was only carried out in his spare time. To maintain his independence he turned down an offered appointment at Göttingen University.Miller, Hugh (1802–1856).Born in Cromarty, his father was lost at sea when he was five years old. He was apprenticed to a stone mason at the age of 16, where he worked for 17 years. For the period 1834–1839 he was a bank accountant during which he became disillusioned with the appointments of the Church of Scotland and reinvented himself as a radical journalist, while still writing articles on geology. The cottage in which he was brought up is now a museum run by the Scottish National Trust. Apparently due to illness and overwork Miller committed suicide.Mullis, Kary (1944–2019).Mullis was born in North Carolina and raised in South Carolina. He studied chemistry at Georgia Institute of Technology and gained a PhD from University of California in biochemistry. He also published in astrophysics while studying for his PhD. He went to several institutions with research fellowships, during one of which he managed a bakery at the same time. Mullis went to the Cetus Corporation where he is credited with inventing the PCR reaction. He was married four times, had three children with two of them, enjoyed surfing and swore a lot, apparently.Narborough, John (1640–1688).Coming from a Norfolk family, Narborough received a naval commission in 1664, progressing to become Rear Admiral Sir John Narborough. He married once and had two surviving sons.Newton, Isaac (1642–1727).Born in Lincolnshire, after the death of his father and the re‐marriage of his mother, Newton was brought up by his grandmother. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where at the age of 26 he became professor of mathematics. In 1687 he published Principia, after which he became more interested in alchemy and theology.Ostrom, John (1928–2005).Born in New York, he was originally planning to become a physician, but changed his ideas to palaeontology and enrolled at Columbia University. He taught at several colleges until his appointment as Professor at Yale University. He married Nancy Hartman in 1952 and had two daughters.Othenio Abel (1875–1946).Abel was born in Vienna, studying law and science at University of Vienna, where he became a professor of palaeontology. His major interest was vertebrate palaeontology, with a neo‐Lamarkcian evolutionary slant. During WWII his alignment with the Nazi regime gave him a senior position in Vienna University. This was rescinded after the end of the war when he was forced into retirement.Owen, Richard (1804–1892).Born in Lancaster, Owen studied medicine at Edinburgh University and then St Bartholomew's, London. He became the curator of the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1856 he became the superintendent of the British Museum natural history department. The Natural History Museum was not then an independent entity.Palaephatus (fourth Century BCE).This is possibly a pseudonym, and even the original date is uncertain. It is the name given to the author of a set of rationalisations of Greek myths. He put his place as between the believers of Greek myths as literal truths and those who dismissed them as simple stories, although the author does frequently use phrases such as ‘this is unbelievable’. The use of the pseudonym may well have been a protection since it would have been seen as heretical to disbeliev the myths in fourth Century BCE Athens.Paley, William (1743–1805).Born in Peterborough, Paley became tutor at Christ's College Cambridge in 1768, archdeacon of Carlisle in 1782 and subdean of Lincoln in 1795. He was an advocate for the abolition of slavery.Peabody George (1795–1869).Born in Massachusetts, a member of a large and poor family. Initially working in his brother's shop he moved to Baltimore where he developed a business as a financier. He developed a large fortune and used much of it for philanthropic purposes. He died in London and was laid to rest in the USA having been transported across the Atlantic on HMS Monarch.Pius IX (1792–1878).Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti was born in Senigallia, on the Adriatic coast of Italy. He took Holy Orders in 1818 and by 1827 was Archbishop of Spoleto. In 1840 he was Cardinal and elected Pope in 1846.Pius XII (1876–1958).Eugenio Pacelli was born in Rome and was a papal diplomat before being elected Pope in 1939.Plato (427–347 BCE).Plato was born in Athens and with the exception of short periods spent most of his life in the city. As far as we know, and somewhat unusually, all of the works of Plato have been preserved, making a considerable collection of philosophical documents. He is generally considered to be the originator of philosophy as it was known in classical terms.Pliny the Elder (c. 23–79).A Roman whose name was Gaius Plinius Secundus, which is where the Anglicised name originates. His original training was in law and at the age of about 23 he joined the army as an officer. When he left the army, he lived in Rome where he exercised his legal training. He travelled widely in the Mediterranean basin, becoming familiar with many of the local customs and methods of working. It is reported by Pliny the Younger in a letter to Tacitus, that he died trying to rescue a friend from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius by boat. In the nineteenth century, doubt was thrown on this and some think he died of a heart attack.Plot, Robert (1640–1696).Plot was born in Borden in Kent and started his education at Wye Free School, Kent. In 1658 he went to Magdalen Hall in 1658, graduating in 1661. Soon afterwards he developed an interest in natural history. He became the first Professor of Chemistry at Oxford University and the first keeper of the Ashmolean Museum. In 1690 he resigned his position at Oxford University and then married. He became the registrar of the College of Heralds in 1695. He is buried in Borden churchyard.Ptolemy II Philadelphus (309–222 BCE).He was responsible for a considerable expansion of the Alexandrian Library and sponsored scientific investigations.Ray, John (1627–1705).Born in Essex, his father was a blacksmith and his mother an herbalist. Educated at Cambridge, he stayed on as a teacher after graduation. This was curtailed when he fell fowl of the authorities after the Civil War on the subject of religious observance. He was supported by an ex‐student from 1662, touring with him across England and Europe. It was only with Linnaeus that Ray's taxonomy was surpassed. Eventually Ray returned to his home town of Black Notley where he continued writing on a wide range of subjects.Romer, Alfred Sherwood (1894–1973).Born in White Plains, New York, he was educated locally, moving to Amherst College where he studied biology. At Columbia he gained an MSc and completed his PhD there. In 1934 he was appointed professor of biology at Harvard University. He married Ruth Hibbard and they had three children.Russell, Bertrand (1872–1970).Born in Trelleck, Gwent, he was brought up by his grandmother, educated privately and at Trinity College Cambridge, studying mathematics and philosophy. He was briefly worked as a diplomat in Paris. He married Alys Pearsall Smith, in 1895 and later divorced in 1921, so that he could re‐marry. He married his second wife, Dora Black, in 1921 and they were divorced in 1934. His third marriage was to Patricia Spence in 1936 lasted until a divorce in 1952. His fourth wife was Edith Finch, they married in 1952, shortly after his divorce. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1950.Scharf, George Johann (1788–1860).Born in Bavaria, he went to Munich in 1804 where he trained as an artist. After several years as a miniaturist, Scharf mastered the art of lithography, which was a recent invention. By a strange confluence of events Scharf found himself a member of the English army on the Continent. In 1816 he left to travel to England where he made a living as a lithographer. He worked for Charles Darwin, producing a series of illustrations of fossil material from South America. He was married to Elizabeth Hicks, the sister of his landlady when he originally came to London, and had two sons.Scheuchzer, Johann Jacob (1672–1733).Johann was the son of a physician and born in Zürich, where he had his early education. He went to University of Altdorf to study medicine, but finished his medical education at the University of Utrecht. After returning to Zurich he became a town physician and Professor of mathematics in 1710. He was elected FRS in 1704.Schlotheim, Ernst von (1764–1832).Born in Ebeleben, Germany, von Schlotheim was initially tutored at home, then attending school in Gotha between 1779 and 1781. He went on to study public administration and natural sciences in Göttingen. In 1792 he entered the civil service in Gotha, achieving Lord High Marshall in 1828. Although his living was as a civil servant, it is for his work in palaeontology for which he is remembered.Schmerling, Philippe‐Charles (1791–1836).Born in Delft, he studied medicine there and at Leiden after which he was a physician with the Dutch army from 1812 to 1816. In 1821 he married Elizabeth Douglas with whom he had two daughters. In 1822 they moved to Liege where Schmerling continued his studies in medicine.Schönbein, Christian Friedrich (1799–1868).Born at Metzingen in Württemberg and at 13 became apprentice in a chemical firm. By private study Schönbein gained a position at the University of Basel, and by 1835 was appointed professor. This was a position he held for the rest of his career. He described the principle of the fuel cell and later discovered ozone. He also described guncotton, nitrocellulose, which it is said he made against his wife's wishes in the kitchen of their home.Scott, Peter Markham (Sir)(1909–1989).Born in London, educated at Oundle School and Trinity College Cambridge, where he graduated in history of art in 1931. He went on to study art in Munich and London. He served in the navy during WWII and is credited with the method adopted by the navy for camouflaging ships. He was a founder of the World Wildlife Fund, now called the World Wide Fund for Nature. He was married to novelist Elizabeth Jane Howard in 1942, they had one child and divorced in Divorced in 1951. In 1951 Scott married Philippa Talbot‐ponsonby and they had two children.Senefelder, Aloys (1771–1834).Born in Prague, he became a successful actor and playwright. His invention of lithography was based upon an observation made around 1796 of drawing on wet surfaces with grease‐based material. By 1806 his technique was good enough for him to open a printing works of his own in Munich. He was appointed director of the Royal Printing Office and started a training school as well.Smith, James Edward (1759–1828).Born in Norwich, Smith travelled to Edinburgh to study medicine, even though his main interest was botany. When he was 24 the widow of Carl Linnaeus sold him his entire collection of natural history specimens and note books. These were transferred to London where they eventually became the origin of the Linnaean Society.Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903).Born in Derby, he had a scientific education from his father but developed an ability to focus on specific subjects to become self‐taught in many disciplines. He worked variously as a civil engineer, writer and sub‐editor. He moved in the literary and scientific circles of London and started writing works on psychology and philosophy, which were popular and widely read. He is credited with coining the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’.Steno, Nicolaus (1638–1686).Born in Copenhagen, he was the son of a Goldsmith, due to early illness he grew up in relative isolation. At 19 he enrolled at the University of Copenhagen and after graduating he travelled widely in Europe, settling in Italy in 1666 as Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua. He was ordained a priest in 1675, later becoming bishop. After his death in Germany in 1686, his body was taken to Italy where he was buried and venerated as a local saint. He formulated four principles of stratigraphy during his lifetime along with much anatomical research. In 1946 his grave was opened, his body removed for a procession through the streets and then reburied.Strabo (60 BCE–20 CE).A geographer, he was born in Amasia in Pontus, now mid‐northern Turkey, of Greek descent. Most of his life he travelled and studied, settling in Rome after AD14. Although most of his historical works only survive as fragments, his 17‐volume work on geography has withstood time and is almost complete.Strato of Lampsacus (c. 335–269 BCE).Born in Lampsacus, now in Turkey, Strato was Greek. He attended Aristotle's school in Athens and was a keen student of natural science. Although credited with a considerable body of work, none has survived in the original form and his views are only known through reports by later writers.Stukeley, William (1687–1765).Born in Holbeach and educated at Cambridge, he was ordained in 1729, moving to a London ministry in 1747. He carried out extensive field work at Stonehenge and Avebury, but related these monuments to druids.Talbot, William Henry Fox (1800–1877).Born at Lacock Abbey in Wiltshire Williamwent to Eton School and Trinity College Cambridge. He wrote on optics and mathematics before moving into photography. Between 1832 and 1835 he was Member of Parliament for Chippenham in Wiltshire. Having excelled at classics as a student, it is little surprise that he was a keen archaeologist and helped decipher cuneiform inscriptions from Mesopotamia. He was married and had three daughters and a son. He dropped the name William and was usually referred to as Henry Fox Talbot.Thales (c. 624–545 BCE).Thales came from Miletus and had a wide‐ranging reputation, being a statesman, engineer and astronomer as well as a natural philosopher. He left no writings of his own, other than a star guide, so what is known of his work comes from other sources.Thomson, Wyville Thomas Charles (1830–1882).Born in West Lothian, he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh. Although he graduated, his interests were in natural science. In 1850 he was appointed lecture in botany and a year later, professor at the University of Aberdeen. In 1853 he was apointed professor of natural history at Queen's College, Cork. He changed his name to Charles Wyville Thomson.Tilesius, Wilhelm Gottlieb (1769–1857).Born in Mühlhausen in northwest Germany. He was introduced to drawing and natural history by his uncle and went on to the University of Leipzig where he studied natural sciences and medicine, graduating in 1795. He was appointed as Professor at Moscow University in 1803. In 1807 he married Olympia von Sitzky, with whom he had a son, but they separated in 1809. In 1814 he returned to Mühlhausen where he continued working although never in a formal position.Ussher, James (1581–1656).Ussher was born in Dublin, the City where he was educated at Trinity College. In about 1606 he became chancellor of St Patrick's, where he became professor of divinity. By 1602 he was bishop of Meath and in 1625, Archbishop of Armagh. He was a committed royalist, but was favoured by Cromwell. This may be associated with his renowned good temper and charity.Wallace, Alfred Russel (1823–1913).Born near Usk, South Wales, he was the eighth of nine children. When he was 5, the family moved to Hertford where he went to school until he was 14 and left secondary education. For the next few years he was an apprentice surveyor to his brother William. When William's business declined Alfred left and took up a position of teacher of drawing and map making in Leicester. Following a number of surveying positions Wallace travelled to the Malay Archipelago, collecting and describing species from 1854 to 1862. When he returned to the UK he published articles and popular books on his travels and in 1866 he married Annie Mitten, with whom he had three children.Warming, Johannes Eugenius Büllow (1841–1924).Usually called Eugene Warming, he was born in Denmark and attended University of Copenhagen studying natural history, where he eventually became professor of botany. He was married to Hanne Jespersen and they had eight children.Waterston, David (1871–1942).Born in Glasgow, he attended the University of Edinburgh, where he studied for a general degree. He went on to study medicine, graduating in 1895. Upon graduating he became lecturere in anatomy. In 1910 he became Professor of Anatomy at King's College London. In 1914 he went to University of St Andrews, where he was Professor of Anatomy.White, Gilbert (1720–1793).Born at ‘The Wakes’ in Selborne, Hampshire, he was educated at Oriel College, Oxford, being ordained in 1747. In 1755 he took the position of curate of Farringdon in Hampshire, while living in Selborne and then latterly curate of Selborne. It was during this period that he wrote Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne.Wilberforce, Samuel (1805–1873).Born in Clapham, he graduated from Oriel College in 1826 and was ordained in 1828. By 1845 he was Dean of Westminster and Bishop of Oxford. In 1869 he was Bishop of Winchester and died after a fall from his horse.Willoughby, Emily (1986‐).Noted for an interest in birds and palaeoart, she studied at Thomas Edison State University.Woodward, Arthur Smith (1864–1944).Born in Macclesfield, he went to school there and at Owens College in Manchester. In 1882 he joined the Department of Geology at the Natural History Museum where he became Keeper in 1901. He was married to Maud Leanora Ida Seeley.Woodward, John (c. 1665–1728).Although details of his early life are uncertain, we know he went to London at the age of 16 to be apprenticed to a draper, later studying medicine as an apprentice. It was during this time that he started his collection of fossils. In 1692 he was appointed Gresham Professor of Physic. Upon his death his will gave considerable amounts to Cambridge University for the purchase of land and payment of annual lectures, also his extensive fossil collection.Worral, Henry (1825–1902).Born in Liverpool, he moved to the USA early in life. Although best known for his artwork, Worral was also a musician, both teaching and composing.Xanthos of Lydia. (fifth century BCE)Working around the middle of the fifth century BCE, he wrote mainly on history, including a history of Lydia, and occasionally on geology. Only fragments of his original work remain, knowledge of his work comes from later commentators.Xenarchus of Seleucia (first century BCE)A Greek philosopher who taught at Alexandria, Athens and Rome.Xenophanes (sixth century BCE).A Greek philosopher and theologian, he was born at Colophon in Ionia, where he lived until he was about 25 after which he went travelling around the Mediterranean, settling for a while in Sicily. His writings in the form of poetry only survive in fragments, which lead us to believe he was an original and independent thinker.Yefremov, Ivan (1908–1972).Sometimes spelt Efremov, Ivan was born in Vyritsa. Left by his mother in the charge of an aunt who died of typhus, he joined the Red Army. He was discharged in 1921 and went to Petrograd (St Petersburg), where he completed his education. He became interested in palaeontology and became Professor in 1943. It was during the 1940s that he developed the study of taphonomy. He had a parallel career as a writer of fiction with his last work published in 1972. Yefremov was married three times, to Ksenia (divorced), Elena (died) and Taisiya, having one son with his second wife.Zallinger, Rudolph Franz (1919–1995).Born in Irkutsk, Siberia, and raised in Seattle, he gained a scholarship to Yale University in 1938. After graduating he worked as a painter and teacher. From 1961 until his death he was at the University of Hartford. He was married to Jean Farquharson Day and they had three children.