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3

HOW DOGS LEARN

WHETHER WE BRING home a puppy or an adult dog, we have to decide what the rules are and train them to behave the way we would like. Unfortunately, many people still believe the myth of dogs as members of a wolf pack, trying to be dominant all the time and competing with their human to lead the pack. It’s a shame, because this idea immediately sets up the human–canine relationship as an adversarial one. But dogs are supposed to be our best friends. So let’s start by looking at how dogs learn.

AN INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL LEARNING

DOGS ARE LEARNING all the time, whether we are deliberately teaching them or not. Dogs learn throughout their lives, but they are also born with some species-specific behaviors called modal-action patterns (previously called fixed-action patterns, but the name has changed to reflect the fact they have some flexibility). Modal-action patterns have a genetic basis and are found in all members of the species, but they can be modified through learning. Hunting is an example, because some aspects of the hunting sequence are genetic, but they are also modified over time as dogs practice hunting skills. Other behaviors are entirely learned, either through interaction with the environment or through interaction with us. There are different ways in which dogs learn: non-associative learning and associative learning.¹

Non-associative learning

Single-event learning is when a dog learns something after it happens only once. It can happen after eating something that makes them sick, just as with people when food poisoning or having too many of a certain alcoholic drink puts you off that food or drink in future.

Habituation is a simple type of learning that occurs when dogs gradually become used to something that is repetitive and not scary, so they no longer really pay much attention to it—like the background noise of the fridge or dishwasher. They are losing a behavioral response that was not learned, such as startling in response to the dishwasher, and they get used to the sound because they learn it doesn’t mean anything to them. Sometimes they can dishabituate and pay attention to it again, but most likely after a short while they will realize it still doesn’t mean anything and go back to ignoring it.

The opposite of habituation is sensitization, when an unlearned behavioral response (like a startle on hearing the dishwasher) gets worse and worse. If the dishwasher were dangerous, this would be a sensible response, as it would help the dog to avoid it, but since it is not dangerous it would just be an unnecessary source of stress. Sometimes people assume their dog will simply get used to something, and they accidentally sensitize the dog instead (see chapter 8 for how this can happen with children).

Sometimes it can be hard to know in advance if a dog is going to habituate or sensitize to a stimulus.

Social learning means learning from other dogs or from humans. Stimulus enhancement occurs when the dog’s attention is drawn to something because another dog is manipulating it, and local enhancement means the dog is drawn to a stimulus or location because of the presence of another dog. Social facilitation means the dog will tend to do something, for example joining in running, because other dogs are also running. Dogs’ abilities to imitate have also been investigated, particularly in terms of preferring certain foods, taking detours, or manipulating equipment to gain food.² Puppies that observe their mom doing narcotics detection work are quicker to pick up drug detection than those who don’t, although it is not clear if this is due to observational learning.³ The Do as I Do dog training method teaches dogs to copy a behavior performed by a human, insofar as canine anatomy allows.⁴ However, more research is needed to fully understand social learning and whether there are simpler mechanisms underlying it.⁵

Associative learning

Dogs learn by association with events—that when the car turns in a particular direction it means they are going to the vet, for example. This is called classical conditioning and it affects the dog’s emotions rather than their behavior. For example, if we know that a dog is afraid of strangers, we can make sure that the appearance of strangers predicts us giving the dog delicious food, and over time the dog will learn to like strangers.

Dogs also learn by consequences—if I jump up on you, I get to lick your face; if I sit when you ask, I get a peanut butter cookie. It’s a simple concept (but it’s so easy to accidentally reinforce the dog for doing something you didn’t really want). This is called operant conditioning. When teaching dogs how to behave, we use operant conditioning to reward or punish behaviors.

Extinction happens when the dog learns that the consequences they were expecting no longer happen. Suppose every time your dog barks at the window, you ignore it. Your dog will continue to bark but—if nothing else is reinforcing the behavior—they will eventually stop barking. Before that happens, it’s common to get something called an extinction burst, in which there is even more barking as the dog tries harder and harder to make the behavior work. At this point, people often think that ignoring isn’t working and so they respond to the dog and inadvertently reward the behavior, which undermines the whole attempt at extinction.

Now I have to add a proviso, because dogs bark for many reasons and ignoring the behavior won’t work if something else is reinforcing it (like the person they are barking at going away down the street). We can also accidentally extinguish behaviors we want by removing the reinforcement, like when we teach a dog to come when called using a food reward, and then just stop giving the rewards. The dog will keep coming back for a while, hoping for that cookie, but then they learn it isn’t happening anymore. If other things are more motivating for them, they’ll go and do those things instead.

Operant conditioning is the foundation of most dog training, while classical conditioning is often used to help fearful dogs. Let’s look at these two types of conditioning in more detail.

Classical conditioning: learning from Pavlov

Most people are familiar with the story of Pavlov’s dogs. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who learned it was possible to pair a natural reflex like salivation with something totally unrelated (the sound of a bell). Dogs automatically salivate in response to the sight and smell of food, sometimes to the extent that drool dribbles out of their mouth. In technical terms, in classical conditioning we refer to the food as the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation as the unconditioned response (UR). It is an unconditioned association because it happens naturally. Pavlov found that if he rang a bell just before delivering the food, the dogs would salivate in response to the sound of the bell. In this case, we refer to the bell ringing as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation as the conditioned response (CR). It’s called conditioned because it has to be learned. It’s not normal to salivate in response to the sound of a bell, but the dogs learned it meant food was coming.

Classical conditioning is most often used as counter-conditioning in conjunction with desensitization as a way of helping dogs to overcome fears. Desensitization means presenting the stimulus at a very low level that the dog is happy with, and gradually increasing it so the dog becomes used to it (the opposite of sensitization). In counter-conditioning, every single presentation of the stimulus is followed by something the dog likes (such as chicken or cheese) so the dog learns the stimulus predicts good stuff happening. Note that no behavior is required from the dog in desensitization and counter-conditioning (other than being aware of the stimulus), as the aim is to change the dog’s emotions, not behavior.

Desensitization and counter-conditioning

•The “thing” (CS) happens at a level the dog is happy with—for example, a very quiet recording of fireworks or a stranger standing still in the distance.

•As soon as the dog notices the “thing,” they receive food (US), which the dog likes (UR).

•Over time, the dog learns to like the “thing,” which is the conditioned response (CR).

A great way to do this in real life is to use Jean Donaldson’s Open Bar/Closed Bar technique. As soon as the dog notices the stimulus, start the flow of chicken or cheese (or whatever great treats you are using) as “the bar is open.” Keep the flow going until the stimulus goes away or stops, and then stop the flow of treats (“the bar is now closed”). This technique helps to make the predictive relationship between the stimulus and the food obvious to the dog. All of this should happen while the dog is happy with the level of the stimulus. If you accidentally go “over threshold,” immediately reduce the level of the stimulus (e.g., turn the volume down or put distance between you and the stranger), and then feed as per usual.

Operant conditioning: learning from Skinner

One of my favorite things to teach a dog is a brief sit-stay—especially if the dog is jumpy, bouncy, and mouthy, because it can make such a difference to the ease of interaction with that dog. It is fun too, with early steps that give the dog the chance to earn many rewards in a minute. Some dogs find it really tough to sit still while I dangle a piece of chicken in front of them for just one second; other dogs find the tough part is when I start to move a little and they want to jump up and follow me. Over time, as sitting still gets more and more of a reinforcement history, it happens more often, even when I haven’t asked for it. This is in line with one of the early laws of animal behavior, stated by American psychologist Edward Thorndike as the law of effect: behaviors that get pleasant consequences will be repeated more often, whereas those that have unpleasant consequences will happen less.

B.F. Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’s ideas and did the classic work on operant conditioning. He delineated what dog trainers often refer to as quadrants: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment.

Positive reinforcement (R+) means adding something immediately after a behavior occurs to increase the frequency of the behavior. Technically speaking, the term breaks down into two parts. Reinforcement means the behavior continues or becomes more frequent. And positive means something is added. For example, you ask the dog to sit, the dog sits, and you give them a treat (something is added). The dog is more likely to sit next time you ask (the behavior was reinforced). Here, the words positive and negative are not being used as evaluative terms (good and bad), but as neutral descriptions as to whether something was added or taken away.

Punishment means something that reduces the likelihood of a behavior happening again; in other words, the behavior becomes less frequent. So positive punishment (P+) means adding something after the dog does a behavior that decreases the frequency of the behavior. For example, if the dog jumps up when you come in the door and you knee them in the chest, and the next time you come in the door the dog does not jump up, you have positively punished the jumping. You added something (the unpleasant sensation of a knee in the chest) and reduced the frequency of the behavior. Please note, I am not advocating this as a way to train a dog, and we’ll get to the reasons why in a moment. And it may also not work (e.g., if the dog perceives it as a game and keeps jumping). In everyday speech, when we say the word “punishment,” we mean positive punishment.

Negative reinforcement (R–) means taking something away that increases the frequency of the behavior. An example would be pushing on the dog’s bottom until they sit, at which point you let go. Assuming that the dog sits more often, the behavior of sitting is reinforced by removing the pressure on the dog’s bottom. And negative punishment (P–) means taking something away that makes the behavior decrease in frequency. For example, your dog jumps on you and you turn away from them or even leave the room for thirty seconds every time. You are taking your attention away and the dog is less likely to jump up in future (but remember what I said earlier about extinction bursts!).

Examples of operant conditioning: reward-based training uses R+ and P–

ANTECEDENT	BEHAVIOR	CONSEQUENCE	RESULT
You say “sit”	The dog sits	R+ Something good happens e.g., chicken, cheese, or treats; a quick game of tug; attention such as petting	The behavior happens more often
You come home	The dog jumps on you	P– Something good is taken away e.g., the flow of chicken, cheese, or treats stops; the game of tug ends; the person stops giving attention or leaves the room	The behavior happens less often
You greet the dog	The dog jumps on you	P+ Something bad happens e.g., a tug on the leash, pressure to push the dog’s bottom down, a zap from the shock collar	The behavior happens less often
You say “sit” while tugging the leash, pushing the dog’s rear end, or applying the shock collar	The dog sits	R– Something bad is taken away or stops e.g., tugging on the leash stops, pressure is no longer applied to the dog’s rear end, the shock from the collar stops	The behavior happens more often

The table has examples of reinforcement and punishment. Note the consequence has to have an effect on behavior. For example, if you pet the dog intending it to be positive reinforcement but it has no effect on the dog’s behavior, then the petting wasn’t actually reinforcing to the dog.

Consequences are not the only way to change behaviors; we can also change the antecedents, something dog trainers call antecedent arrangements. For example, suppose the dog has a habit of drinking from the toilet bowl. The antecedent is that the lid is up allowing access to the toilet water. A very sensible antecedent arrangement would be to ensure the lid is never left up, so it is not possible for the dog to drink the toilet water. Of course, you should also ensure the dog has access to a suitable water supply!

DOG TRAINING: THE LINK BETWEEN TRAINING METHODS AND BEHAVIOR

REWARD-BASED METHODS ARE those that use positive reinforcement (R+) and/or negative punishment (P–), or humane management strategies (such as putting a lid on the garbage can to keep dogs from raiding the trash, or using a no-pull harness for dogs that pull on-leash).⁶ Exercise and enrichment are also often part of the solution to resolving behavior problems (see chapters 9 and 10).

Eighty-eight percent of dog owners do at least some training at home, according to a report in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior, but it seems that most do not use reward-based methods exclusively.⁷ Unfortunately, when people use outdated methods to train dogs, perhaps because they don’t realize science recommends reward-based methods, they are using methods that rely on fear and pain. It’s just a tap, a correction, or information, they say. But prong collars, choke collars, leash corrections, electronic collars, and alpha rolls (rolling the dog on their back and holding them there until they stop moving) work because they are painful or fearful for the dog. These are aversive methods.

A survey published in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior asked owners about their dog training methods and attendance at dog obedience classes.⁸ The owners were then asked to look at a list of thirty-six possible dog behavior problems, including attention-seeking issues (e.g., jumping up, pawing, or mouthing the owner), fear issues (e.g., avoiding or hiding from familiar or unfamiliar people), and aggression, and indicate which one(s) their dog exhibited. Seventy-eight percent of dogs jumped up at people, 75 percent pawed at people or demanded attention, and 74 percent were excitable with visitors. These are all friendly, pro-social behaviors (at least in the eyes of the dog!). The three most common behavioral issues people described as problematic were aggression towards family members, house soiling when the owner was at home, and chewing or destroying things when the owner was out. Owners who used only positive reinforcement in training were less likely to report behavior problems related to fear, aggression, and attention seeking. Interestingly, the highest levels of fear, aggression, and attention seeking were found in dogs whose owners used both positive reinforcement and positive punishment (so-called “balanced” dog training methods).

A study in Vienna published in Applied Animal Behaviour Science looked at whether the size of the dog made any difference.⁹ Dog owners in that city are required to register their dogs, and researchers sent a questionnaire to a random sample of owners, which means the results of the survey are representative of the population there. The study rated a dog as small (up to 20 kg or 44 pounds in weight) or large. Eighty percent of owners used punishment to train their dog, most commonly leash jerking, scolding, and holding the dog’s muzzle. Ninety percent of owners used rewards either often or very often. For both small and large dogs, the more often their owners used punishment, the more aggressive and more excitable the dog. The relationship was strongest for small dogs. In contrast, the more often people used rewards, the more obedient they rated their dog, and also less aggressive and less excitable. Another finding of note is that owners of small dogs are less consistent with their training, put less emphasis on training, and engage in fewer activities with their dog than those who have large dogs. And consistency matters when it comes to obedience: the less consistent the owner, the less obedient their dog.

In another study published in Applied Animal Behaviour Science fifty-three dog owners were asked about how they had trained their dog and video was taken of them asking their dog to sit, lie down, and stay.¹⁰ Researchers then gave the owner a bag of treats and a ball to use as rewards if they wished, and gave them five minutes to teach their dog a novel task—touching one of two spoons on command. All of the participants had used a mix of rewards and punishment to train their dog in the past. If the owners had tended to use punishment more often than rewards, the dogs were less playful with the owner and less interactive with the researcher. The dogs whose owners had previously used rewards more were quicker to learn the new task. Dogs also performed better at learning the new task if their owners were patient and used more rewards. The most likely reason for the improved results is motivation.

Another study, published in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior, observed dogs at two different dog training schools, one that used positive reinforcement and another that used negative reinforcement.¹¹ Dogs in the negative reinforcement group showed more signs of stress, such as a lowered body posture (keeping their body closer to the ground), whereas dogs in the positive reinforcement group looked at their owners a lot more. This matters because you need the dog’s attention to ask them to do something. So positive reinforcement was not just better for the dog’s welfare but also for the human–canine bond.

Gaze is an important part of the human–canine relationship. JEAN BALLARD

A questionnaire study published in Applied Animal Behaviour Science found that confrontational methods can lead to an aggressive response.¹² At least a quarter of dog owners reported getting an aggressive response to an alpha roll, dominance down (rolling the dog on its side and holding it there), muzzling the dog, forcibly removing something from its mouth, and grabbing the dog by the jowls. Use of a choke or prong collar got an aggressive response from 11 percent of dogs, and use of a shock collar got an aggressive response from 7 percent of dogs. Less aversive techniques such as growling at the dog, staring it down, or yelling “no” also sometimes got an aggressive response (yes, you read that right—some people growl at their dog).

A review in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior of seventeen journal papers about dog training methods, including those mentioned above, concluded that reward-based methods are better for dogs’ welfare and in some cases even seem to be more effective.¹³ Although many of these studies are correlational and so can’t prove a causal relationship between training methods and signs of fear, anxiety, or stress, the existing research has led organizations such as the American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior and the Pet Professional Guild to warn against the use of aversive methods in dog training.¹⁴

THE RISKS OF ELECTRONIC COLLARS

ALTHOUGH MANY TRAINERS get excellent results without them, some trainers still use electronic collars, also known as shock collars. Despite claims they merely “tap,” “stimulate,” or “tingle,” they only work insofar as the dog finds the sensation unpleasant and worth avoiding. Otherwise these collars would have no effect at all (or the opposite effect to that intended). Alternately, some people say an electronic collar is a last resort, although the science does not support this view.

Research published in PLOS ONE shows that even when used by experienced trainers and in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines, electronic collars pose a risk to animal welfare.¹⁵ The researchers tested the collars specifically for training recall (dogs coming when called) in the presence of livestock (in this case, sheep). There were three groups of dogs: dogs trained with an electronic collar by a trainer recommended by the Electronic Collar Manufacturers Association, dogs trained with positive reinforcement by those same trainers, and dogs trained with positive reinforcement by trainers who specialize in using positive reinforcement. All of the dogs wore either an active or deactivated electronic collar so that observers who rated the videos could not tell which group the dogs were in (i.e., they were blind to the condition). The dogs in the activated electronic collar group more often showed signs of stress (such as low tail and yawns), although there were no differences in levels of the hormone cortisol (a measure of arousal). The study concluded that using electronic collars has risks for animal welfare and does not produce better results than positive reinforcement.

What about the use of electronic collars as a fence mechanism to keep a dog contained within a particular area? A fence is created by burying sensors underground along the line the dog is meant to stay inside, with visible markers above for training purposes. When the dog goes past one of the sensors, the collar delivers a shock.

A survey of dog owners in Ohio, published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, found that 44 percent of people who used an electronic fence said the dog had escaped, compared with 23 percent of those who used a physical fence.¹⁶ Unfortunately, if a dog escapes from an electronic fence (for example, to chase a passing cat), they may be reluctant to return to the yard because they will receive a shock on the way back in. Furthermore, these fences do not keep wildlife and other dogs or people out of the yard, meaning the dog is potentially still at risk of attacks from wildlife or dogs. Another risk is that the dog may associate the shock with the dog or person who just happened to be going past, and so may become fearful of or aggressive towards other dogs or people.

A review of the scientific research on electronic collars finds there is no justification to use them and suggests they should be banned; reward-based methods are encouraged instead.¹⁷ Electronic collars (including fences) are banned in several countries, including Wales, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland (England banned other types of electronic collars but not electronic fences for dogs and cats).

THE BENEFITS OF REWARD-BASED TRAINING

ONE TIME, I spent an hour putting a harness on a dog and then taking it off again. She was a beautiful little Siberian Husky who pulled like crazy on walks and was not much used to being handled. Attempting to put the harness on resulted in excited jumping and mouthing, so I started by simply showing her the harness and giving her a piece of chicken for not jumping. Next I lured her head through the harness for chicken, then expected her to put her head through of her own volition, and so on. Our training progressed quickly, as she loved chicken, she was very clever, and she really wanted to go for her walk. Once I got the harness on, I took her out for a quick toilet break, and she was so happy to go outdoors. Then we went back inside for more practice at putting the harness on and taking it off again without her nibbling on my hands. Although I am used to wrangling jumpy dogs into harnesses, I wanted to know she would politely keep still while someone put her harness on. Siberian Huskies are known for needing lots of exercise, so this use of positive reinforcement enabled a future of long walks.

“WE ARE ULTIMATELY responsible for everything they experience, from their eating and elimination schedule, to their exercise and access to both wonderful and frightening things. Once we recognize that we humans are responsible for all of it, and that dogs are powerless animals whose welfare depends on us, kindness and consideration naturally follow. Dogs make choices when they have the opportunity—the choice to be warm, well fed, near the people and animals to whom they’re attached (an important one!), and to be safe. We humans are the ones to present those opportunities.

Force-free behavior modification then makes sense: if you want to influence what a dog does, offer appropriate choices, give the dog time to choose, and reinforce the behavior you want. If the dog makes the wrong choice, try again—don’t punish. Punishment leads to stress and unravels trust so that choice-making is inhibited. We are also capable of making choices; choosing to train dogs with kindness and generosity is an important one.”

—ILANA REISNER, DVM, PhD, DACVB, Reisner Veterinary Behavior and Consulting Services

Training is good for your dog’s welfare because it helps them know how to behave in order to get reinforcements such as petting, play, or food. In situations where a dog is unsure, they will default to behaviors that have been rewarded in the past, such as sitting. And, according to research in the Journal of Veterinary Behavior that looked at the outcomes for dogs referred to a veterinary behaviorist, good advice reduces euthanasias and keeps dogs in homes.¹⁸ As well, reward-based training is a fun activity that can provide enrichment for your dog. At its best, training using food or play as rewards can teach dogs to detect narcotics or other substances, perform canine freestyle routines with their handlers, or even learn words, like Rico the Border Collie who learned over 200 words, and Chaser the Border Collie who knows over 1,000 words.¹⁹

“THE WORLD WOULD be a better place for dogs if every dog owner understood that their dog’s behavior, good and bad, is motivated purely by consequences, not their dog’s desire to be ‘leader of the pack.’ The myth that we must dominate dogs, or else they will assume the alpha position, is outdated and incorrect. Thanks to a recent explosion in the depth and breadth of canine research over the last 15 years, our understanding of dogs has improved dramatically. We now know that dogs are not trying to be the boss; they just do what works for them. Behaviors that have a desired consequence are repeated whereas behaviors that don’t tend to stop. It’s the same for us humans and, in fact, every other living being on the planet! This is why positive reinforcement training is so effective. When dogs (and other animals) are reinforced with things they like for desired behavior, they quickly learn to repeat those behaviors. Recent science has also taught us that physically punishing dogs (smacking; popping the check chain) for undesired behavior can adversely affect their welfare and the human–animal bond and punishment doesn’t teach the dog what to do instead. Unfortunately, this relatively new understanding of dog behavior, learning and training has not become common knowledge amongst the general population and the old paradigm persists. It’s up to those of us who have this new understanding of dogs to share our knowledge far and wide to make the world a better place for dogs.”

—KATE MORNEMENT, PhD, animal behaviorist at Pets Behaving Badly

Puppy classes

A good puppy class can help with socialization. A study in Applied Animal Behaviour Science found that attendance at puppy class was associated with a lower risk of dogs being aggressive towards unfamiliar people in the home or outside.²⁰ (This study also found that attendance at adult dog training classes was associated with a higher risk of canine aggression, perhaps because people are more likely to attend if they are having problems with their dog, or because of the methods used in the class, which were not assessed.) And we know that a one-off puppy party is not as effective as a six-week, reward-based puppy class.²¹ Over a six-week class, puppies get the chance for ongoing socialization with other people and other puppies, and these encounters will help them to generalize those experiences. Puppies can start puppy class at 7 to 8 weeks of age and should have their first vaccines one week beforehand.²²

A study by Dr. Janet Cutler, an animal behavior consultant at Landmark Behaviour and post-doc at the University of Guelph, asked new puppy owners what they were doing to socialize their puppy, whether or not they went to puppy class, and—if they were one of the 49 percent that did—what happened there.²³ Cutler told me, “We found that people that did go to puppy classes were less likely to use punishment-based discipline, in particular yelling at their dogs or holding their dog down on its back. And we also found that the puppies of these people were less likely to respond in a fearful manner to some noises and also to crate training.” The results are correlational, and it’s possible that a different kind of person chooses to attend puppy class than those who don’t.

The scientific literature does not have guidelines on how much socialization is enough, but for the purposes of Cutler’s study, “not enough” was defined as up to ten new people and up to five new dogs in a two-week period. “The people that went to these puppy classes ended up exposing their puppies to more people and to more dogs,” said Cutler. Still, about a third of puppies in this study were not getting enough socialization. She noted, however, that the quality of the experience is important. Forcing a puppy to meet people and dogs is not socialization; it is a potentially frightening experience that may do more harm than good.

Cutler noted that many classes don’t habituate puppies to loud noises (such as fireworks), which may help them to not be afraid of loud noises as adult dogs. She also highlighted that many classes did not include handling exercises, which can help get the puppy used to the kind of handling they will experience at the vet’s throughout their life. But she concluded, “I recommend that everyone takes their puppies to puppy classes, as long as it’s one that’s providing positive experiences. I’m a behavior consultant myself, and I have a puppy right now, and she’s enrolled in a local school because I don’t teach classes. So I’m going to puppy class with her even though I know about socialization, know what I should be doing. I still think that they’re valuable things.”

A good puppy class will ensure that all the puppies are having a good time by keeping shy puppies away from more boisterous ones, and letting puppies hide by their owners if they want to. Play opportunities must also be positive for all the puppies involved. If you’re not sure, the trainer should do a consent test by separating the puppies. If the puppy who appeared to be victimized runs back to play, you know the play was okay. But if they don’t, keep the puppies separate. A good trainer will ensure puppies don’t get bullied and will use barriers or exercise pens as needed.

HOW TO CHOOSE A GOOD DOG TRAINER

TRAINING CLASSES ARE not just for puppies; adult dogs can also benefit from classes, including obedience or specialist classes on topics like greeting guests or liking visits to the vet. For behavior problems, private dog training is probably more appropriate.

When choosing a dog trainer, look for someone who will use food to train your dog, partly because this approach automatically avoids the use of physical punishment (such as prong collars, electronic collars, and alpha rolls) and because food is easy to deliver as a timely reinforcement. For some problems, it may be necessary to see your veterinarian, a veterinary behaviorist, or animal behaviorist (or a combination of your vet and a suitably qualified trainer). If no one is available locally, some trainers offer internet or telephone consultations.

“IF YOUR DOG is aggressive, scared, or destructive; or embarrassing, jumping up, and playing deaf . . . I promise it can almost certainly get better. Your dog can get better—and your relationship with your dog can get better. If you can commit to training your dog, however this ends up looking—taking a reactive rover class or working one-on-one with a qualified trainer, for example—there is help to be had. And when you come out on the other side with new skills for both human and canine, a slightly different setup at home, and some treats in your pocket, you’ll be amazed that such a colossal change was even possible. So if things are tough and what you’ve tried isn’t helping, reach out now. It gets better.”

—KRISTI BENSON, CTC, dog trainer and staff member at the Academy for Dog Trainers

HOW TO APPLY THE SCIENCE AT HOME

•Use positive reinforcement, which is an effective way to train dogs and does not carry the risks of a punishment-based approach. If you want to know more about the science of dog training methods and how they affect welfare, I keep a list of research articles on my website with places where you can read about them online (look for the page called Dog Training Science Resources).

•To translate theory to practice, try to see problem behaviors from your dog’s perspective. If your dog is doing something you don’t like, remove the reinforcement for the problem behavior and/or provide better reinforcements for the behaviors you do want. Think about reward-based ways to manage the situation. If you think your dog is afraid, see chapter 13.

•Ask questions. When looking for dog training classes or hiring a private trainer, ask about the methods they use and ensure you are happy with the answers before you hire them.

•Look for a certified dog trainer who is a member of a professional organization, who takes part in ongoing professional development, and who will use food to train your dog. Well-respected certifications include the Certificate in Training and Counseling (CTC, from the Academy for Dog Trainers), the Karen Pryor Academy Certified Training Partner (KPA CTP) designation, the Victoria Stilwell Academy Dog Trainer (VSA CDT) designation, and the Pat Miller Certified Trainer (PMCT) designation. All these programs have websites where you can search for trainers.

•Look for a puppy class that emphasizes positive reinforcement and socialization, separates shy puppies from more boisterous ones during play, and encourages puppies (rather than forces them) to interact with other people.

•Set aside some time each day for training. A few short sessions are better than one long session. Make sure everyone in the house is on the same page, especially if you are dealing with behavior problems, so as not to undermine the training.

•Consider taking your adult dog to a class. Classes for adult dogs cover everything from basic obedience to fun activities like tricks or canine nose work (see chapter 10).