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Audiovisual Translation Migrates to the Cloud: Industry, Technology and Education

ALEJANDRO BOLAÑOS GARCÍA - ESCRIBANO

University College London

1

Introduction

Audiovisual translation (AVT) has grown extensively in the past few decades, moving from the margins to the mainstream of translation scholarship, and so has the AVT market, which continues to grow by leaps and bounds worldwide (MESA 2019).

In an industry spearheaded by fast-paced technological developments, the demand for tech-savvy and well-trained language professionals is an enduring reality nowadays. Translators are expected to excel at language-related tasks in professional settings by putting their technological literacy into practice. The AVT industry constitutes an ever-changing landscape (Baños and Díaz-Cintas 2015), so professionals need to become more imaginative to keep abreast of a growing list of innovations and remain employable. Today, the newest technologies in the AVT industry are taking the form of browser-based platforms and systems as well as other tools made available through the internet and thus occurs the steady migration of translation workbenches and workflows to the cloud.

The nature and evolution of the AVT profession have far-reaching implications in its teaching. First, there is a greater need for well-trained localisers and translators that specialise in AVT; secondly, honing translation competences and providing trainees with a well-informed education and authentic training practices, including situational experiences, need to be prioritised; and, thirdly, industry conventions and software ought to have a wider presence in training environments. In short, the teaching of AVT in higher education and other educational settings should ultimately aim to satisfy the latest industry demands by using cutting-edge technology, where possible, in the classroom. This chapter aims to depict the status quo of industry technologies in order to justify and legitimise the proposal of a comprehensive inclusion of new technologies, with an emphasis on cloud-based systems, in AVT education.

2

Academic and professional landscapes of AVT in the 21st century

Although AVT remained practically untouched by scholars until the early 1970s (Pérez-González 2014), it is now considered a solid, relevant research field in academia. As a matter of fact, the literature has grown exponentially, leading to a significant body of published research (Pérez-Escudero 2018) as well as the expansion of AVT specialised training in higher education (Bolaños-García-Escribano and Díaz-Cintas 2019).

All AVT practices share at least one common denominator: the audiovisual text. It is understood that an audiovisual text is received aurally and visually at the same time and is conditioned by the interaction between the verbal and non-verbal signs, thus giving rise to four main components that are common to all audiovisual texts, i.e. the acoustic and visual channels and verbal and non-verbal signs (Zabalbeascoa 2008). For some scholars, however, audiovisual texts are far more complex and can be composed of up to fourteen different codes, thereby reinforcing the multimodal nature of AVT (Gambier 2013). These categories, further discussed by Delabastita (1989), allow for a better understanding of AVT practices, which can be subsumed depending on how the linguistic transfer is made.

AVT practices are usually divided into two main groups: revoicing and subtitling. Whereas in revoicing the original soundtrack is replaced with a newly recorded or live soundtrack in the target language, subtitling operates by maintaining the original speech and images, which are accompanied by written snippets of text that correspond to synched translations or (quasi) transcriptions of the original dialogue. Both groups of AVT modes include accessibility sub-practices, which can be used to bridge linguistic and cultural barriers or to facilitate access to audiovisual productions for audiences with sensory impairments, such as the deaf and the hard-of-hearing and the blind and the partially sighted. Irrespective of the target audience and the type of transfer, all practices inherently demand the use of technologies that allow the translator to embed, insert, or superimpose their translation onto the original text, which is a timely reminder that the very concept of translation is becoming progressively blurry in light of the many shapes AVT has taken in the past few years (Chaume 2018).

The evolution of translation as a discipline is inextricably linked to technological advances. Translation has overgrown rudimentary translation methods and ergonomics, leading to more versatile and dynamic work environments brought about by digital technologies. AVT is no exception, as it has traditionally required a great deal of technology, including the use of specialised software (e.g. subtitling systems) and equipment in dedicated workplaces (e.g. dubbing studios). In recent years, AVT professionals have also experienced a greater inclusion and wider application of translation-memory and machine-translation tools in the profession (Georgakopoulou 2012).

Audiovisual consumption has changed significantly in the last few decades due to the rapid development of new technologies (Chaume 2018) and, in turn, the creation of new mass media channels and widening of audiences. One of the main developments that transformed the audiovisual landscape irreversibly across the globe was the introduction and spread of DVDs at the turn of the century, which permitted the inclusion of several subtitle templates and dubbed soundtracks within the same storage format. Today, the potential held by the internet for the distribution and localisation of audiovisual programmes has been repeatedly discussed by scholars; over a decade ago, Díaz-Cintas (2009) mentioned how the internet had contributed to the sharing of open-source software among subtitlers (both professionals and non-experts) as well as to expanding the degree of control audiences have over audiovisual products. It has also allowed for a rapid transformation of broadcasting by those embracing new video-delivery systems. Digital television later paved the way for a new era of audiovisual consumption and novel distribution methods, such as paid-subscription streaming platforms whose content is available on demand, hence the term video on demand (VoD). These and other services that formerly used cable or satellite now rely exclusively on internet connection, i.e. over the top (OTT) format. In short, the internet has profoundly changed the current mediascape as we know it.

As one form of internet-based television, VoD either «provides users with access to a traditional channel or network’s existing library including new content once it becomes available on the linear schedule» or «employs organizational schemes that are best understood as cultivating or curating content libraries» (Wayne 2018: 729). VoD services, which encompass the likes of Amazon Prime, Disney+, HBO and Netflix, among others, have grown exponentially, particularly in the last decade or so, and are expected to continue expanding. As Grandinetti (2017) points out, VoD platforms have also led to major changes in viewing habits; for instance, there has been a swift move from prime-time to an any-time viewing culture, subsequently encouraging and nurturing binge-watching behaviours.

In Europe, VoD usage rates have accelerated steadily since 2012, and sharply since 2014; furthermore, it has been found that VoD consumer revenues in the EU soared from €919 million in 2010 to €2.5 billion in 2014 (Croce and Grece 2015). VoD viewing rates have experienced a spike across the board during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the USA, for example, reporting a 32% increase in membership subscriptions in March 2020 and VoD viewership growing up to 57% for some UK providers (Forte 2020).

It goes without saying that VoD platforms have stimulated the language industry, too, since their content needs to be localised in a myriad of languages and be made accessible to cater for people with sensory impairments. As recounted by some scholars, the popularisation of VoD platforms has had far-reaching implications in subtitling workflows (Georgakopoulou 2012) and has also given rise to new dubbing trends (Ranzato and Zanotti 2019). Orrego (2018) explored the many effects participatory culture has had in today’s consumption habits, where audiences’ demands, preferences and viewing habits have impacted localisation practices. Be that as it may, recent trends in audiovisual consumption seem to reinforce the ubiquity of translation, whose screen presence is more prominent now than ever before (Díaz-Cintas 2019).

In the latest official report on the size and wealth of the language industry in Europe, it was found that, back in 2008, the value of the language industry within the EU was €8.4 billion, of which €568 million represented the sector of language technology tools and €633 million, the sector of subtitling and dubbing (European Commission 2009). With an estimated annual compounded growth rate of 10% minimum, the European language industry was expected to exceed €16.5–20 billion by 2015. According to a recent press release published by MESA (2019), the total spending on content localisation services in the Europe, the Middle East and Africa (EMEA) market in the television, film and video sector exceeded US$2.3 billion in 2018 and a 5–8% growth was anticipated for 2021. In the most recent global market research on the wealth of the language industry, Nimdzi (2019; 2020) reinforces its positive estimates from previous years: the size of the global language industry in 2019 was expected to be US$53.5 billion (of which 2.1% account for subtitling services), with an expected five-year growth of 6.8% and a projection of US$70 billion in 2023. In 2020, the language industry’s total value was expected to be US$57 billion worldwide, with an expected growth of 6.2% and a projection of US$77 billion by 2025. Nimdzi’s expected growth rate has shrunk in the past few years, from 7.4% in 2018 to 6.2% in 2020 and may even become lower once future market research studies shed light on the impact of the 2020 pandemic.

Workload has consequently increased dramatically, especially for internet-based broadcasting services, leading to a panorama of AVT professional services in which translation labour is systematically outsourced to subcontractors (Abdallah 2011). Large media localisation companies reportedly assume most of the total media localisation workload from audiovisual content distributors. Among the 100 largest language and translation service providers (LSPs/TSPs), at least 10% specialise in media localisation, including revoicing, subtitling and media accessibility services (Nimdzi 2020). These companies, also referred to as preferred vendors by some media-streaming companies, are therefore cornering the market in media localisation.

Media broadcasters’ tradition of outsourcing materials has had adverse effects in some industries, especially in terms of quality and rates. In such a competitive market, finding highly trained professionals for a localisation job constitutes a major challenge, not only for translators but also for technicians, voice talents and project managers. A major problem the AVT industry has experienced for years now is the so-called talent crunch (Estopace 2017), especially in the case of some language combinations and countries where specialised training falls short. So, in order to attract qualified professionals, some large media broadcasters and audiovisual platforms have made attempts to fine-tune existing recruiting processes or to design innovative online testing methods, albeit often to little avail, such as Netflix’s Hermes portal. ¹

The AVT industry has shown, in recent times, a landscape characterised by lower rates and, at times, abusive conditions imposed by some of the largest LSPs/TSPs. Previous studies, such as Kuo (2015), Bolaños-García-Escribano (2018) and Díaz-Cintas and Massidda (2019), have reported on the practices that prevail in the AVT profession at present.

3

Inroads of cloud technologies into AVT

AVT constitutes a technologically driven industry, wherein a myriad of revoicing and subtitling systems have traditionally been used to localise audiovisual material. Today’s migration of media localisation work into cloud environments is manifest when one looks at localisation and translation methods and workflows in the industry. Cloud-based subtitling platforms, for instance, which often offer pay-per-use rates, have lately encroached on the AVT technological landscape to the detriment of options. Cloud ecosystems have been used by large audiovisual media providers and LSPs/TSPs for decades in their attempt to move away from desktop-based solutions and increase access to translation tools among freelance linguists, thus acting as a driver of the so-called cloud turn (Bolaños-García-Escribano and Díaz-Cintas 2020).

Starting off in the late 1990s and spreading over the early noughties, cloud computing commenced as a market niche in many business industries for a period but has now outgrown the scarce early systems and experienced a quick and vast expansion around the globe. The exponential growth of cloud systems has led to a major turn in the ways we use applications and store information in the age of big data.

The most widely accepted definition of cloud computing is the one drafted by Mell and Grance (2011: 1) for the US National Institute of Standards and Technology:

a model for enabling convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or service provider interaction.

Cloud systems often refer to «both the applications delivered as services over the internet and the hardware and systems software in the data centers that provide those services» (Armbrust et al. 2010: 50). Said systems provide service developers and users with resources that are typically offered on a subscription basis, which can be increased or reduced, and which include storage, database, information, testing, security and platform services (Linthicum 2010).

The two main economic benefits of cloud platforms seem to be the pay-as-you-go (also known as pay-per-use) system in which users purchase the exact amount of time they need to use the services offered by cloud-based tools and, therefore, the savings on upfront outgoing capital (Armbrust et al. 2010). Another main advantage of cloud computing, which has undoubtedly propelled it into everyday computing at end-user level, is the delocalisation of file-based data storage. Storing data on the cloud reduces the costs on hardware and significantly increases the efficiency of data access by means of replacing hard drives with public data centre hosting services. Furthermore, cloud providers also offer application developers and users a stable environment for on-demand platform instances.

One of the main challenges posed by cloud computing nowadays is, however, the security factor, which can be perceived as the greatest inconvenience for the widespread adoption of the cloud across the globe. Cloud services usually market their infrastructures by putting an emphasis on secure cloud-computing environments, but there are still many threats that remain unknown to both developers and end-users (Vaquero et al. 2011). This is why users need to take extra caution with sensitive data (e.g. copyright material) on account of the multitenancy nature of cloud environments, whereby users store and share resources. This is highly relevant in the AVT industry, too, where materials are usually subject to confidentiality and copyright restrictions.

Generally speaking, cloud-based AVT tools are online solutions that support the management of revoicing and subtitling projects without resorting to desktop-based installations. They often include a workflow manager from the entry test to the onboarding of new freelance subtitlers, and some also offer an automatic invoicing application. Some tools offer free trials or decide to curtail access to certain features until the user acquires the full license (i.e. crippleware). AVT solutions ought to satisfy industry demands, so, for instance, most cloud-based subtitling tools have further integrated templates (also known as master files or first translations), which are currently an enduring reality in the subtitling market (Georgakopoulou 2019, Nikolic’ 2015).

Cloud-based platforms have been progressively incorporated into translators’ workbenches by a rising number of agents and stakeholders operating in the translation industry in the past few years (Díaz-Cintas and Massidda 2019). These cloud tools are supposed to reduce costs, improve security against piracy, increase productivity and enhance connectivity among professionals by providing clients, vendors and end users with an online platform that utilises cloud computing to store files and process the data necessary to undertake any media localisation project.

International institutions are also embracing cloud-based technologies; for instance, the European Commission recently published its cloud strategy, defining its vision for cloud computing as «cloudfirst with a secure hybrid multi-cloud service offering» (2019: 3). The Directorate-General for Translation also combined cloud and machine learning technologies to create their cloud-native machine translation system (e-Translation²), which they started to offer to European public administrations, small and medium-sized enterprises and higher-education language departments in 2017.

An increasing number of media localisation companies are undertaking the localisation of many types of audiovisual programmes with their newly developed proprietary cloud-native software. The first web-based proprietary subtitling system was launched by ZOO Digital (ZOOsubs³) back in 2009. Since then, a wide range of cloud-based subtitling tools have been developed, many of which are proprietary and, therefore, available to be used exclusively by in-house and freelance translators employed by the companies that own them. One example of this is Netflix, which developed its Subtitle Originator and QC 2.0 to liaise with its preferred vendors. LSPs/ TSPs tend to grant access to said tools exclusively with their pool of translators at no cost. Although more widely used in subtitling, an increasing number of revoicing systems have emerged in the last few years too, some of which are exclusively offered on the cloud, such as ZOO Digital’s dubbing solution (ZOODubs⁴).

Other platforms, like the one developed by Ooona⁵, are open to all practitioners and offer pay-per-use rates or annual licenses. In order to illustrate how these tools work, the next section includes a closer examination of Ooona’s Captions and Subtitles Toolkit⁶, which has been renamed Ooona’s Online Toolkit, or simply Ooona Tools, in more recent updates of the system.

4

Snapshot of a cloud-based subtitling tool: Ooona’s Captions and Subtitles Toolkit

This subtitling tool takes the form of a modular cloud-based platform (Figure 1) containing a series of individual applications (Create, Translate, Review, Convert, Compare, Burn & Encode, Create Pro, Translate Pro, Review Pro, Batch Convert, Transcribe, Closed Captions, Multilingual QC and View). These applications aim to cover the most common phases of any subtitling project, which range from the creation of files to the embedding of subtitles (Pagano et al. 2011). In addition, it allows the subtitler to (re-)encode videos, review translations and amend pre-spotted templates, among many other advanced tasks.

Figure 1 Ooona’s Captions and Subtitles Toolkit (dashboard view).

Despite the particularities of the toolkit just mentioned, using a cloud-based platform does not differ enormously from using a desktop-based solution, except for the fact that the interface is browser-supported. As seen in Figure 2 below, Ooona’s cloud-based text-timing tool resembles other subtitling software insofar as it contains a text editor that allows the user to segment text to produce individual subtitles (A), a video player (B) and a timeline (C). The more advanced applications (i.e. Create Pro, Translate Pro and Review Pro) also offer a waveform display as well as an automatic shotchange recognition tool. At first sight, a tool of this kind seems user friendly, but the user needs to be conscious of the challenges posed by its browser-based interface. In fact, it is of utmost importance to avoid the so-called keyboard traps, that is, the potential interference of tool-specific shortcuts (e.g. add subtitle, merge subtitles, change colour, etc.) with those of the browser (e.g. close tab, open new tab, etc.). This challenge is particularly relevant for users who may not be able to use a mouse or a touchpad whilst navigating within the tool.

Figure 2 Cloud-based text-timing tool interface (Create view).

In professional circles, some translators have recently discussed the advantages and disadvantages of Ooona’s Captions and Subtitles Toolkit; Salotti (2019), for example, highlighted the importance of the tool’s user-friendliness and affordability as well as its customisability. In her opinion, the tool seems both productive and time efficient. Nonetheless, there are some drawbacks, such as security. According to Salotti (2019: 21):

while Ooona Tools does not store your video files on their end, it does store your subtitle files. So users with strict non-disclosure and confidentiality agreements may need to make sure they don’t violate terms when using this tool. All accounts are password protected with an optional two-factor authentication. Ooona Tools is ISO/IEC 27001:2013 certified and complies with the latest security techniques and information security management systems requirements. Stability can be another drawback in web-based apps, especially for those whose internet connection is patchy. The software does crash when there’s an internet time-out. To try to counteract this, Ooona offers a built-in auto-save feature that may prevent.

A similar account was given by Fernández-Moriano (2019: 12), who also examined the tool’s advantages and disadvantages, which can be summarised as follows:

Pros: There is no need to install software locally. You can work anywhere or from any computer. Some platforms offer clients better control on materials and processes. Cons: There is still much room for improvement in the free subtitling platforms, and there is not one single free option that covers all subtitling stages; Ooona does. They require an uninterrupted internet connection, with good download and upload speed. Privacy issues might arise with some clients for storing their material on a cloud service they cannot control.

In previous unpublished research (Bolaños-García-Escribano 2016), a brief product-quality analysis of Ooona’s Captions and Subtitles Toolkit was carried out using the British Standards Institution’s ISO/IEC 205010:2011, focusing on its eight parameters (see Table 1). Nonetheless, attention should be drawn to the fact that access to sensitive data, as well as official records, is often curtailed to external users (including researchers and trainers). For this reason, some quality parameters, such as reliability, security and maintainability, are still unchartered territory.

Table 1 BS ISO/IEC 205010:2011 parameters.

Parameter	Sub-characteristics
Functional suitability	Functional completeness
Functional correctness
Functional appropriateness
Performance efficiency	Time behaviour
Resource utilisation
Capacity
Compatibility	Co-existence
Interoperability
Usability	Appropriateness recognisability
Learnability
Operability
User error protection
User interface aesthetics
Accessibility
Reliability	Maturity
Availability
Fault tolerance
Recoverability
Security	Confidentiality
Integrity
Non-repudiation
Accountability
Authenticity
Maintainability	Modularity
Reusability
Analysability
Modifiability
Testability
Portability	Adaptability
Installability
Replaceability

First, functional suitability, which denotes the degree to which a system provides functions that meet stated and implied needs used under stated conditions, can be measured in relation to its completeness, correctness and appropriateness. This analysis revealed that the cloud-based tool covered most subtitling phases and adequately satisfied subtitlers’ specific needs, despite the fact that certain functionalities were found to be missing (e.g. quality assurance, visualisation and online delivery), some of which have been incorporated in recent updates. The tool’s applications also facilitate the completion of specific subtitling phases and objectives, thereby avoiding unnecessary steps (e.g. setup and manual configuration), while keeping the interface intact and almost unchanged and allowing the user to move from one step to the next almost automatically.

Secondly, in terms of performance efficiency, which refers to the amount of resources used by a tool under stated conditions, it transpired that, depending on the hardware and internet connection, the platform could require a few seconds to launch certain functionalities (e.g. over four seconds to log in, six seconds to launch the translation functionality and seven seconds to open an existing project), whereas uploading video material was often faster (e.g. less than one second to upload a video from local storage). As far as the newly created video-analysing plugin called Ooona Agent is concerned, its advanced features, such as dialogue and shot change recognition, operate in the background and may take longer to produce the supporting data. As for the device’s technical requirements, users need to have a stable internet connection and an up-to-date Google Chrome browser, although future developments seem to be pointing towards the possibility of working offline too.

Thirdly, compatibility is understood as the capacity of a system to interact with other software products, systems or components while sharing the same hardware or software environment and used under stated conditions. The Ooona platform can be deemed compatible with other hardware and software; there does not seem to be any detrimental impact on any other product or software, other than the use of memory and CPU resources, and data can be exchanged with other subtitling systems, products and components by converting or exporting subtitle files.

Finally, portability refers to the degree of effectiveness and efficiency with which the platform can be transferred from one hardware, software or other operational or usage environment to another. This is the parameter in which cloud-based platforms excel, as they can be used in many different environments and operating systems (as long as Google Chrome is supported in this particular case). Cloud software does not need to be installed, or thereafter uninstalled, and can be easily replaced with other cloud- or desktop-based tools should they be needed.

Three key points make cloud-based systems like Ooona’s a promising environment to train future AVT professionals. Firstly, they are functionally suitable for subtitling professionals, in the sense that most phases of a given subtitling project are covered; secondly, they are fully compatible with other desktop-based software through a powerful conversion tool; and thirdly, they are both reliable from a technical point of view and portable from a mobility perspective.

As is the case with other software programs, OOONA Tools also presents several caveats that detract from its suitability to train of would-be subtitlers, such as the fact that tracked changes and comments cannot be exported, which makes the reviewing of subtitles a hard endeavour. Another shortcoming is the fact that subtitling projects, in the form of .json files, do not allow different users to work on the same file simultaneously; moreover, exchanging files necessarily implies leaving the cloud ecosystem and using an external file-sharing tool. And yet another drawback that compromised its cloud-based nature was the need to locally install a separate plugin, the so-called OOONA Agent, so that the user could work with some of the applications, which is no longer necessary in its latest 2021 update. In the past, this plugin was necessary to create soundwaves and shortcuts as well as to burn and encode videos. Ideally, all tasks ought to be carried out online and similar platforms should bear this in mind. Despite its limitations, however, OOONA Tools still constitutes one of the few cloud-based subtitling systems that are not proprietary and can therefore be used by subtitlers and trainers, all by offering a purely professional ecosystem.

Following this brief analysis, it would be useful to carry out further empirical research on other parameters, especially on usability. Observation and experimentation in the form of action research would be helpful to fine-tune the uses and applications of cloud-based platforms and inform teaching methods.

5

The uses of cloud technologies in AVT education

Despite its solid position today, AVT education still remains somewhat unexplored in academia when compared with other fields and specialisations. The first instructional courses, which can be traced back to the late 1980s in Europe, used to focus almost exclusively on the translation of cinema productions. At the turn of the century, AVT research and teaching boomed during the so-called golden years of AVT (Díaz-Cintas 2012: 280). This was a major turning point in the provision of AVT tuition in higher education as many universities around the world started to progressively incorporate AVT training as part of their existing programmes of study, both at undergraduate as well as postgraduate levels. In terms of academic visibility, one of the pioneering books on the learning and teaching of AVT was published by Díaz-Cintas (2008). Since then, a number of publications revolving around methods to teach AVT and accessibility have followed. That said, the literature often focuses on a specific AVT mode or a given country’s educational landscape. All this activity has, nonetheless, awakened much interest among the academic community and would-be translators, thus foregrounding the definitive establishment of AVT as a formal discipline and area of study in higher education (Gambier and Ramos-Pinto 2016).

Cloud-based systems, like the ones discussed previously, are transforming the ways in which translators work nowadays. It logically follows, then, that translators in training ought to familiarise themselves with these during their studies. On the one hand, a pedagogical approach that takes all cloud developments into account and exposes students to the latest advancements in cloud computing is paramount for students to gain the professional skills necessary to be more employable upon graduating. On the other hand, cloud-based platforms may also allow for a leaner transition towards distance education practices by encouraging a wider use of internet-based applications and tools.

The didactic potential of cloud-based solutions is considerable; they integrate all revoicing and subtitling tasks and allow the different agents involved to work on the same platform. As concerns revoicing solutions, these can be used in dubbing studios or could be accessed by voice talents from a place of their choosing, which would serve to enhance remote work and interconnectedness. Tools like the one shown in Figure 3 have the potential to be adapted to the classroom, so that students can simulate dialogue writing, translation and voicing tasks. They also afford the student a wider perspective on revoicing project management as well as industry workflows.

Figure 3 Audio recording interface of ZooDubs (work view).

Collaboration between software developers and trainers is relatively close today and the former are becoming more cognisant of the potential of cloud-based platforms in higher education and training centres. Some companies, such as Ooona⁷, have even created educational versions of their tools by tailoring them to the needs of both students and trainers (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 Ooona’s Online Toolkit for education (dashboard view).

As educators seek software that is better tailored to the learning and teaching of AVT, software developers need to be more creative to remain competitive and prominent in the market. It is expected that some cloud-based platforms will soon integrate features that are common in online learning tools such as Blackboard and Moodle. For existing platforms to be more pedagogically sound, they would ideally allow the trainer to create, share and assess teaching materials within the same interface, which may also include a video-conference plugin to deliver AVT lessons online.

The COVID-19 pandemic has been a rude awakening for higher education institutions in terms of the challenges posed by distance learning but, on the other hand, it has also been timely in creating awareness around the opportunities this type of education offers. Universities that used to offer commercial subtitling software on campus have no longer been able to use them in traditional classrooms or specialised computer clusters. Software providers and trainers have been placed in a difficult position when requested to make software available to students outside of campus. Many universities continue to encourage students and teachers to incorporate open-source software available on the internet into AVT curricula, whenever these are not already being used. Cloud-based solutions, however, are worthy of further exploration as they have a broader scope, offering an authentic working environment in which students can simulate most phases of an AVT project in an industry-informed fashion.

5

Conclusions

AVT is evermore present in the language industry nowadays. The localisation of audiovisual content has recently experienced a spike across the board, so the market continues to expand steadily and requires trained professionals, cutting-edge technologies and improved workflows. What was once a niche market has experienced technological advances in cloud computing in the last few decades, which have facilitated the industry’s growth, ultimately boosting productivity and stimulating the AVT sector’s wealth. LSPs/TSPs have created their own proprietary cloud-based software, while software developers have launched cloud systems in an attempt to cater for larger cohorts of practitioners.

It can be ascertained that AVT education, not to mention higher education on the whole, is changing with the times; in fact, online classrooms and cloud-based workbenches have a bright future at universities that have been severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and have had to enhance their remote-education provision. Cloud-based platforms pose challenges, particularly in higher education, where AVT trainers have recently been expected to rapidly adapt their teaching to increasingly online working environments in the midst of great uncertainty.

The use of cloud-based systems is, however, still somewhat limited in AVT training despite their untapped pedagogical potential, for which reason it seems their classroom presence, virtual or otherwise, can only be expected to grow. If appropriately adapted to a classroom setting, as some companies have recently done, the functionalities offered by these tools could be highly valuable to hone the professional skills of translators-to-be. Scarce attempts have been made to date to develop online tools for the teaching of languages and translation; more work is needed to align said tools with the requirements of higher education today, with a particular emphasis on AVT competency (Cerezo-Merchán 2018).

As a rule of thumb, cloud technologies can be perceived as more agile and flexible than other solutions; as a matter of fact, new browser-based tools often release new features, patches and updates at a notably faster pace than desktop-based solutions. Cloud-based tools also tend to require less coding as they have pre-prepared platforms and solutions, and developers, avid to cater for translators’ needs, are open to receiving users’ feedback to improve their tools. The fine-tuning and tailoring of cloud-based platforms, so that they might become salient in both educational and professional environments, constitutes a valuable area of research and development.

In terms of future research, what the collaboration between trainers, students, and industry partners can yield in our field remains to be further explored. In particular, the application of empirical research methods to the study of usability seems to be a promising avenue along which to embark upon further research on AVT education. This chapter is ultimately conceived as a steppingstone for future research that develops pedagogically sound cloud-based educational tools for the learning and teaching of AVT.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my dear CenTraS colleague Lydia Hayes for her invaluable insights and help, and for kindly agreeing to proofread this chapter too.

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