Читать книгу Muhammad: Man and Prophet - Adil Salahi - Страница 12
ОглавлениеTHE REPORTS WE have of the early years of Muhammad’s life are not numerous. This is not surprising because, for one thing, illiteracy was the norm in Arabia at the time, and no one could have imagined the great role that Muhammad was destined to play in human life generally. The reports we have, however, are sufficient to indicate to us that from his early years Muhammad was distinguished by his honesty, kindness, patience, humility and readiness to help others. He was also known to be a youth who did not indulge in any of the vices which were widely practised in the Makkan society, such as drinking, gambling or promiscuity.
We cannot fail to notice, with hindsight, that Muhammad was being prepared for his great role. One aspect of this preparation was the fact that he never had anything to do with the idols worshipped by his people. He never revered any of those idols or bowed to them, nor did he ever give any offerings to the idols, as was the custom of his people, or attend any of the festivities which were organized as part of idol worship.
His nurse, Umm Ayman, reports that the Quraysh used to pay homage to an idol called Buwābah. On a particular day each year they organized a special festival in its honour. They stayed near the idol all day long and shaved their heads. Abū Ṭālib, the Prophet’s uncle, did not fail to attend the festival. Every year he asked his orphan nephew to attend, but Muhammad declined. Abū Ṭālib was angry with him, and even his aunts spoke to Muhammad about his apparent lack of respect for the idols. They tried to persuade him not to remain the odd one out in his family. In their representation, they touched on a young man’s duty to show his loyalty to his family. They said: “You seem not to wish to share any festival with your people, and not to be counted as one of their number.”
Ultimately Muhammad yielded to his aunts’ pleading and went to the festival. He came back in a state of fear. He told his aunts that he feared he might be possessed by an evil spirit. They assured him that God would never let him suffer such a thing, considering his numerous good qualities. Relating his experience to them, he said: “Every time I came near to an idol, I saw a tall white man telling me to hold back and not to touch the idol.” Umm Ayman stresses that that was the first and the last idol festival Muhammad attended until he began to receive his Qur’ānic revelations.1
This is just one of several reports we have about Muhammad’s attitude towards pagan worship long before the beginning of his prophethood. Taken together, these reports point to the fact that Muhammad was being deliberately kept away from pagan worship. It was only to be expected that God would protect the man He had chosen to be His last Messenger to mankind – bringing them the final message based on the absolute oneness of God – against paying the slightest homage to any idol even in his youth.
Participation in What Serves Justice
Nevertheless, Muhammad lived a normal life among his people. He was sociable, well loved and highly respected. The fact that he did not indulge in any vice earned him greater respect. Moreover, he never failed to take part in any important matter which was of concern to his tribe or his society.
One example was his participation in the war known as ‘al-Fijār’. The name suggests violation of sanctity. It was so called because the war started with a treacherous murder, committed by a man from the Quraysh in one of the four sacred months. Those four months were traditionally sanctified by the Arabs and war was totally forbidden during them. For a treacherous murder to be committed in these months was a violation of sanctities of the worst type. Hence it was not surprising that a war should break out between the Quraysh and the Hawāzin, the tribes to which the murderer and his victim belonged.2
Muhammad was only fifteen when this war broke out. It lasted four years. He took part in it, but according to the more reliable reports he did not participate in the actual fighting. He helped his uncles, however, by shielding them against the arrows directed at them by their enemies, collecting these arrows and preparing them for use by his fighting uncles.
Shortly after the end of this war, when Muhammad was nearly twenty, he took part in forging an alliance between the different clans of the Quraysh. This was a noble alliance which the Prophet continued to praise long after prophethood. The alliance was called ‘al-Fuḍūl’ after three of the main participants, each of whom was named al-Faḍl. It is also suggested that this alliance was called al-Fuḍūl because it was made for such a noble goal: the name suggests maintaining honour.3
The immediate reason for forging this alliance was that a man from the clan of Zubayd arrived in Makkah with some goods to sell. An important man of Makkah, al-ʿĀṣ ibn Wā’il, bought them all from him, but did not pay him. When the man realized that he was about to lose everything, he appealed to several clans of the Quraysh to support him. They all declined to stand against al-ʿĀṣ ibn Wā’il and rebuked the man for his attitude. In his desperation, the man stood on top of a hill immediately overlooking the Kaʿbah at sunrise, when the men of the Quraysh met in groups around the Kaʿbah. He made his appeal to them, stating his case in a passionate and desperate manner. He reminded them of their position as the custodians of the Sacred House of Worship. Al-Zubayr ibn ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib, an uncle of the Prophet, was the first to be moved to act. He stood up and said that injustice must not be allowed.
A meeting was organized in the house of ʿAbdullāh ibn Judʿān, a man of honour well respected in Makkah. Representatives of many clans of the Quraysh were present. The terms of the alliance were agreed at that meeting. Those who attended gave their most solemn pledges, swearing by God that they would stand united, supporting anyone in Makkah who suffered any injustice, whether he was a Makkan or an alien, and that they would stand firm against the perpetrator of that injustice until right and justice were restored.
When they had made their alliance, those people went to al-ʿĀṣ ibn Wā’il and forced him to return to the man from Zubayd the goods he had taken from him.
Knowing the nature of this alliance, we can understand why the Prophet continued to express his support for the ideals which this covenant endorsed. Long after prophethood he said: “I attended in ʿAbdullāh ibn Judʿān’s home the forming of a covenant which I would not exchange for any material gain. If now after Islam I am called upon to honour it, I would certainly do so.” This shows how Islam endorses any action or covenant made for the purpose of ensuring justice for all.4
When the al-Fuḍūl covenant was made, Muhammad, now a young man of twenty, was opening a new stage in his life. His noble birth, strong character and physical strength would surely have put him on the road to prosperity. We have reports suggesting that in his old age Muhammad was endowed with exceptional strength. In his youth, he must have been full of vigour and ability. Combining this with his well-known honesty and wisdom which belied his years in addition to his fine character, it was only to be expected that if he aspired to any material achievement in his society he would have been certain to achieve it.
Muhammad, however, continued to set for himself a high code of honour. The strength of his character and his keen sense of morality provided a balancing factor for his physical desire. He was able to control that desire with his wisdom and spiritual strength.
Moreover, he was fast acquiring a reputation for meticulous honesty. Indeed, he was called by his society al-amīn, which meant ‘trustworthy and honest’. Material gain did not seem to tempt him in any way. He did not despise wealth, nor did he seek any vain ideals. He only had a fine sense of proportion. He realized that wealth was not an end in itself. It was a means to a higher end. Hence he approached the task of searching for a new occupation with seriousness and dignity. It was soon decided that he should try to find employment in trade and business.
Muhammad had no money of his own to establish a business; nor was Abū Ṭālib, his uncle, a man of affluence to provide him with a good start. The only option left for him, therefore, was to prove himself as an agent, trading on someone else’s behalf. Apparently, he had no difficulty in securing such a position, because of his rapidly growing reputation for honesty and sound character. We have some reports which suggest that he was trading in different markets and bazaars. He entered into partnership with a fellow agent called al-Sā’ib ibn Abī al-Sā’ib, whom he praised later for his integrity and honesty. When, many years later, the Prophet met al-Sā’ib on the day he conquered Makkah, he welcomed him warmly, saying: “Welcome to my brother and partner, an honest and straightforward man.”5
It is not absolutely certain for whom Muhammad was working as agent in those early years. It is reasonable, however, to assume that it was Khadījah bint Khuwaylid, a rich widow, who had the benefit of his valuable services. She was later to send him on a trade mission to Syria with a great quantity of goods. Probably she would not have done that without trying him first in the local markets. He is reported to have said later that she was a very kind employer. Every time he and his partner went to see her, she offered them something to eat.
Muhammad gained a great deal of experience in business in his early twenties. He was working on commission. Khadījah, however, paid him more than she paid her other agents. She realized that she had working for her a man who combined honesty and integrity with a keen eye for business. Her admiration for Muhammad was increasing all the time. She wanted to retain his services, and she felt that the only way to do that was to increase his income. He, however, showed no sign of the greed normally shown by people in his position.
Business Travel
Things were becoming very difficult in Makkah. Business was at a low ebb after a couple of years of drought. It was important for the Makkan business people to concentrate on their traditional trips to Syria and Yemen. One year, as preparations for the trip to Syria were getting under way, Abū Ṭālib spoke to his nephew about travelling as agent of Khadījah.
Deep down in his heart, Abū Ṭālib did not wish his nephew to travel to Syria because he feared for his safety. But the situation was deteriorating and such a trip held the best promise for the family. Abū Ṭālib heard that Khadījah was planning to send someone on her trade in return for two camels. He felt that if he were to speak to her, she would be glad to send Muhammad at double that commission. Muhammad, however, was against approaching her. Soon he received the news that she wanted him to travel on her business trip. Some reports suggest that it was Khadījah who approached Abū Ṭālib first. She knew that he was not keen on his nephew travelling away from Makkah. She, however, wanted to send a man whom she could trust. Abū Ṭālib yielded to her pressure after Khadījah agreed to pay Muhammad double the normal commission. Her servant, Maysarah, was to travel with him.
It was a successful trip. Muhammad managed to sell all the goods he took out with him to Syria at a profit, and bought Syrian goods to sell in Makkah. Again, he made a handsome profit for Khadījah. One report suggests that she actually made twice as much as she hoped for. She was so grateful to Muhammad that she doubled his commission.
Maysarah gave his mistress a detailed report on the trip. He was full of praise for Muhammad, whom he came to know as a most pleasant man to be with – honest, kind and truthful. He never tried to burden others with his needs, yet he was most helpful to others. He did not wait for them to ask for help, he was always ready to oblige.6
Khadījah, being a wealthy widow, received one marriage proposal after another. She realized, however, that it was her money that tempted her suitors. Hence she declined as many proposals as she received. Her business association with Muhammad, however, made her recognize that there was a man for whom money was not the greatest priority. She began to think of him in a different light. Khadījah was a woman of great intelligence and noble birth. She had a strong character and she liked to act in any matter only after she had looked at it carefully from all angles. Apparently, she consulted one or two of her trusted relatives, who praised Muhammad highly. One of those was Waraqah ibn Nawfal, an old uncle of hers, who recognized that Muhammad was destined to have a very important future. Khadījah had long resolved that she would choose her future husband when she was absolutely certain of his character. Looking at her dealings with Muhammad, she felt that it was now up to her to take the next step.
Khadījah sent a close friend of hers, Nufaysah bint Munyah, to make an indirect approach to Muhammad. When she met him she said: “Muhammad, what is keeping you from getting married?” He answered: “I do not have enough to meet the expense of my marriage.” She said: “What if you are not called upon to meet such expenses? What would you say to a woman of beauty, wealth and position who is willing to marry you? Would you marry her?” He said: “Who is that woman?” She answered: “Khadījah.” He asked: “Who can arrange such a marriage for me?” She said: “Leave that to me.” His response was: “I will do it, willingly.”
The First Marriage
When Khadījah was sure of Muhammad’s reaction, she sent him a message asking him to come and see her. She said to him: “Cousin, [she used this term in the widest sense, since she was a very distant cousin of Muhammad. Their ancestry did not join until the fifth grandparent.] I admire you because of your good position among your people, your honesty and good manners, and because you are a man of your word.” She then made her proposal that they should get married. Muhammad was very pleased and went to inform his uncles, who were also very pleased with such a marriage.
Muhammad went with his uncles to meet Khadījah’s uncle, ʿAmr ibn Asad. Abū Ṭālib spoke on behalf of his nephew. He said: “This nephew of mine, Muhammad ibn ʿAbdullāh, is without peers in his nobility of character and descent. If he is not wealthy, wealth is only something accidental. Money comes and goes, and many a wealthy man becomes poor. He will certainly have a great future. He is proposing marriage to your honourable daughter, Khadījah. He is giving her a dowry of such-and-such.” ʿAmr ibn Asad did not hesitate to make his acceptance clear. The marriage was then concluded at a dowry of 20 young camels.
It was a happy marriage. Most biographers of the Prophet put his age at 25, saying that Khadījah was 40. Some reports suggest that the Prophet was nearer 30. Khadījah, on the other hand, was reported to have been 35, or even 25. In view of the fact that she gave Muhammad six children, the report which allots her a younger age seems more accurate. ʿAbdullāh ibn ʿAbbās, the Prophet’s cousin, who is considered to have been the most learned among the companions of the Prophet, states that she was 28 and not a day older.7
Whatever their respective ages, Muhammad was to spend 25 happy years with Khadījah. The marriage gave Khadījah a man whom she could love, respect and trust. He was a most caring and loving husband who attended to his family duties with his customary seriousness. She gave him four daughters and two sons. Although polygamy was the normal practice in Arabia, Muhammad did not have a second wife while Khadījah was alive. The marriage gave Muhammad a settled life, but the real benefit of marrying Khadījah was not fully apparent until after he began to receive his revelations and face opposition to his message from all quarters. At that time, Khadījah’s support was most valuable to Muhammad. She stood by his side, reassuring him and giving him all the comfort he needed. No matter how great his troubles when he called on his people to accept Islam, the moment he went home he was certain of a comforting welcome from his wife. Long after her death, and when he had married several other wives, the Prophet continued to cherish Khadījah’s memory.
Khadījah gave birth first to a boy who was named al-Qāsim. Four daughters then followed, named Zaynab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthūm and Fāṭimah. ʿAbdullāh was the last child to be born to Khadījah. Only one of his later wives gave the Prophet a child: Maria, the Coptic slave who was sent to him as a present by the ruler of Egypt. She gave birth to a boy, Ibrahīm. Al-Qāsim lived only a few years while ʿAbdullāh died before it was time for him to be weaned. Ibrahīm, on the other hand, lived only 18 months. All four daughters of the Prophet lived until after Islamic revelations started. They all accepted Islam. The first three, however, died in Madinah, while Fāṭimah was the only daughter of the Prophet to survive him. She died six months after his death.8
Rebuilding the Kaʿbah
When Muhammad was 35, the Quraysh realized that it was absolutely necessary for them to rebuild the Kaʿbah: it is only natural that such an old place should suffer some structural deterioration with the passage of time. The old structure needed to be pulled down and built anew. Repair work was woefully inadequate. Makkah had suffered major flooding a short time earlier and the walls of the Kaʿbah were cracked as a result. It was not easy for the chiefs of Makkah to take this decision. They were very reluctant to pull the Kaʿbah down, yet they could not see how they could achieve their goal of preserving the building if they limited their activity to patchy repair work. Eventually they made up their minds and set a time for starting.
It was ʿĀ’idh ibn ʿImrān ibn Makhzūm, a maternal uncle of the Prophet’s father, who started the work. He removed one of the stones, only to find it flying back to its original position. Apparently, he was a man of wisdom. When he saw the stone flying back, he said: “People of Quraysh, select the best of your money for building the Kaʿbah. Do not include in the building fund any money earned by a whore or from usury, or anything taken by force from any person.” This shows that even in the darkest days of paganism, the Arabs recognized that adultery and usury were evil. A place built for the worship of God should not be financed by any earnings from such evil sources.
The chiefs of Makkah themselves and the noblemen in all the clans of the Quraysh were personally involved in the building work. They considered this an honour not to be missed. They organized the work so that each pair of men would work together, removing stones and relaying them in their proper positions. Women also shared in the work and carried the mortar which would hold the stones together. The Prophet himself shared in the building work, joining his uncle, al-ʿAbbās, in his shifts.
It is also said that when the men of the Quraysh met to start the demolition in order to rebuild the Kaʿbah, nobody was prepared to begin. They were extremely reluctant to pull the building down, fearing that something would happen to them. Al-Walīd ibn al-Mughīrah, one of their chiefs, volunteered to start. He took his axe and moved forward, repeating these words: “My Lord, we mean no offence. My Lord, we are only working for a good purpose.” He then began to work, pulling down part of the building, near the corner of the Black Stone. No one joined him. They felt it was better for them to wait that night. They said to one another: “We will wait for tonight. If something happens to al-Walīd, then we will not continue with our project, but will put the part he has removed back as it was. If he is still all right, then God has accepted what we are doing and we will proceed.”
Al-Walīd was among the first to report for his work shift the following morning. He continued with the demolition and others joined him. When they reached the foundation laid down by Abraham, they found sharp green stones held tightly together. One report suggests that one man inserted a lever between two of these stones to pull them apart. When the stone gave way, the whole town was shaken. They immediately stopped the demolition work and started rebuilding.
At the time, the Kaʿbah was much lower than it is now. Its height was equal to the length of nine arms. The Quraysh decided to double it. When the Kaʿbah was rebuilt about 90 years later by ʿAbdullāh ibn al-Zubayr, he increased its height to the present one, which is equal to the length of 27 arms. The increased height meant that many more stones were needed. All the Quraysh clans were working hard at that task. Each clan worked on its own. When they thought they had gathered enough stones, they put up the building, taking great pride in their work. Apparently, each clan wanted to have more of the honour of building the Kaʿbah for itself. Old jealousies were coming to the surface and disagreements frequently flared up. It was when the time came to restore the Black Stone9 to its position that the dispute among the clans was at its fiercest. Each clan wanted that honour for itself. Tempers were high and people started to call for a resolution of the dispute by the sword. In no time, they were ready to engage in battle.
Four or five nights passed, with tension at its highest. An alliance was formed by the clans of ʿAbd al-Dār and ʿAdiy ibn Kaʿb to fight to the bitter end. The alliance was sealed with blood. Some wise men, however, tried to resolve the dispute. A meeting was called in the mosque itself and discussions were held on how to resolve the dispute amicably. That, however, was not easy to achieve. Finally, the eldest man in the Quraysh, Abū Umayyah ibn al-Mughīrah, made a suggestion which was met with unanimous approval. He suggested that the first man to enter the mosque be asked to arbitrate in the dispute, and whatever judgement he made was to be honoured by all.
The first man to enter was none other than Muhammad. He had not yet received his revelations and he knew nothing about prophethood. Nevertheless, he was well respected for his integrity and fairness. When they saw him, all of them expressed their pleasure. They said: “This is the man of trust, al-amīn, and we accept him as arbitrator.” They put the matter in dispute to him. He immediately recognized that it was a very sensitive issue which needed to be approached with a great deal of tact. He asked them to bring a garment and to select a representative from each clan. When they had done so, he placed the Black Stone on the garment and asked those clan representatives to lift the garment jointly, with the Black Stone on it, and move it to its position. When they had lifted it to its exact spot he himself placed it there and secured it in position. Everyone was satisfied with this solution, which ensured that no clan could boast of monopolizing the honour of restoring the Black Stone to its position. They all had a share in that honourable task. Moreover, this solution enhanced Muhammad’s standing among his people.10
NOTES
1. Amīn Duwaydār, Ṣuwar Min Ḥayāt al-Rasūl, Dar al-Maʿārif, 4th edition, Cairo, pp. 80-81.
2. Ibn Hishām, al-Sīrah al-Nabawiyyah, Dār al-Qalam, Beirut, Vol. 1, pp. 197-198.
3. Ibid., pp. 140-141. Also, Ibn Sayyid al-Nās, ʿUyūn al-Athar, Dār al-Turāth, Madinah, 1996, pp. 113-114.
4. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., pp. 141-142.
5. Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., p. 84.
6. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., pp. 198-200. Also Ibn Sayyid al-Nās, op.cit., pp. 115-117 and Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., pp. 85-87.
7. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., pp. 200-201. Also, Ibn Sayyid al-Nās, op.cit., p. 118.
8. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., p. 202.
9. The Black Stone is an easily distinguished stone, placed a little below shoulder level at one corner of the Kaʿbah. The act of worship which is particularly associated with the Kaʿbah, and never stops except when congregational prayer is held, is ṭawāf, which means walking round the Kaʿbah seven times in an anti-clockwise direction. Ṭawāf is one of the duties of Islamic pilgrimage and ʿUmrah (mini-pilgrimage). It is also a recommended act of worship at all times. Moreover, it is the way to offer greetings to the Kaʿbah.
It is said that when Abraham completed the building of the Kaʿbah, with the help of his son, Ishmael, God commanded him to do the ṭawāf. He was not able to keep a correct count of the rounds he made. He felt that other worshippers would be similarly confused. He prayed God to give him a sign to be used for counting rounds. The Angel Gabriel brought him the Black Stone.
When one starts ṭawāf, and at the completion of each round, one should kiss the Black Stone or touch it with one’s hand, if it is possible, or signal to it from a distance, if the place is too crowded. As one does so, one should repeat this declaration: “There is no deity save God, God is supreme.” The significance of this particular action is best expressed by ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, the second greatest figure among the companions of Prophet Muhammad and his second successor as ruler of the Islamic state, and a distinguished scholar. He addressed the Black Stone in these words: “I know that you are a stone which can cause no harm or benefit. Had it not been for the fact that I saw God’s Messenger (peace be upon him) kissing you, I would not have kissed you.”
10. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., pp., 204-211. Also, Ibn Sayyid al-Nās, op.cit., pp. 121-124.
