Читать книгу Muhammad: Man and Prophet - Adil Salahi - Страница 17
ОглавлениеWHEN MUHAMMAD, GOD’S Messenger, declared his message in public and called upon the people of Makkah to adopt it as a faith and a way of life, in submission to God and fulfilment of His commandments, he in effect went on the offensive in a struggle which was to dominate the rest of his life. Up till that moment, the Prophet and his early followers confined themselves to a secret approach made to a limited number of people on a private and individual basis. These efforts won for the new message of Islam a hard core of advocates whose dedication would never slacken. The Prophet’s public declaration of his message, however, changed the whole picture as the target of his efforts changed. The whole society was called upon to accept a total change in the basis upon which it was built, and of the principles and values it upheld.
The change meant much more than the mere substitution of one god for a collection of idols made of dates, stone, gold, wood or mud. The Arabs of Makkah were not just asked to pay homage to God instead of their idols; they were asked to accept His rule regarding all aspects of their social, cultural and political life. In other words, the change would also include their social practices and economic and commercial interests, as well as their political power and influence.
The response of those who wielded power in the Makkan society was therefore hostile, as was only to be expected. They realized that unless they met the new call with stiff and determined opposition, it was bound to win acceptance with a large section of the population – especially among the poor, the slaves and the deprived, but also among open-minded and liberal-thinking individuals from the powerful classes. Hence, a campaign of persecution was launched against the followers of the new calling.
The early Muslims did not belong to any particular class or social group, but were drawn from all clans and all levels of the tribal structure of Makkan society. Tribal considerations dictated that a member of a tribe should be defended by the whole tribe against any outside harassment or injustice. Indeed, as has been seen, a tribe would defend an individual member even when he was at fault. Hence, some of the early Muslims escaped physical persecution as they were protected by their tribes. Many, however, were less fortunate, for they belonged to the lower classes of slaves or ‘allies’, i.e. individuals attached to different clans and tribes by a verbal covenant of ‘alliance’. Although they enjoyed tribal protection in normal circumstances as a result of that covenant, their status within their tribes was ambivalent. They were therefore vulnerable to stern punishment when their dispute was with the powerful leaders of their tribes.
It was indeed only natural that the brunt of the campaign of persecution would be borne by Muslims who belonged to these classes. After all, the Makkan tribal society was defending its very system which classified people according to their birth and circumstances. The privileged class would not relinquish its privileges easily. It was unable, however, to disregard those privileges or to deny them to those companions of the Prophet who were entitled to enjoy them by virtue of their birth and lineage.
A Campaign of Terror
One of the early tactics of the chiefs of Makkah to try to suppress Islam altogether was a campaign of terror which varied according to the status of the recipient. Those who belonged to the higher classes were subjected to taunts and ridicule. The most determined opponent of Islam at that time was a man called ʿAmr ibn Hishām, who belonged to the clan of Makhzūm. He was soon to be nicknamed Abū Jahl, which meant ‘father of ignorance’. Abū Jahl masterminded the campaign of opposition in its two distinct forms: ridiculing those Muslims who had good connections with their tribes to ensure their protection, and persecution of the weaker ones. When he heard of a noble person who accepted the faith of Islam, he reproached and ridiculed him. He would tell him: “You have deserted the faith of your father, who was a better man than you. We will disregard any good opinion you may have, oppose your views and treat you with contempt.” If the man was a merchant, Abū Jahl would threaten a boycott so that the business of the new Muslim would suffer. If the new Muslim belonged to the weaker class, then physical abuse was soon forthcoming from Abū Jahl.1
Abū Jahl, however, was not the only enemy of Islam; he was only the most uncompromising. Others tried to outbid him in the campaign of terror. What happened to Bilāl and Khabbāb provides good examples of the ferocity of the terror campaign.
Bilāl was born in slavery to an Abyssinian father. His master, Umayyah ibn Khalaf, the chief of the clan of Jumaḥ, wanted to show to everyone in Makkah that he was just as keen as Abū Jahl to defend the established order. Hence Bilāl was taken out to the open desert, day after day, where he was severely beaten. At midday, when the sun was at its hottest, he was made to lie on the sand without any clothes to protect his back from the burning sand. A large stone was put on his chest to increase the torture. He was dragged with ropes over the burning sand. Repeatedly he was asked to renounce Islam and to declare that he believed in the idols. Just as often he repeated: “He is One! He is One.”2
Bilāl’s ordeal lasted a long time, until one day Abū Bakr passed by while he was being tortured. He tried to soften Umayyah’s heart, without much success. Umayyah, however, accused Abū Bakr of being responsible for Bilāl’s transgression and challenged him to save him. Abū Bakr immediately took up the challenge and offered Umayyah an exchange deal: Bilāl would become his in return for a more youthful and vigorous slave who was not a Muslim. Umayyah accepted the deal and Bilāl joined Abū Bakr, who immediately set him free because he knew Islam disliked slavery and promised great reward from God to those who freed slaves.
Abū Bakr’s Noble Heart
Indeed, Abū Bakr repeated his noble action several times. ʿĀmir ibn Fuhayrah was a slave who belonged to al-Ṭufayl ibn ʿAbdullāh al-Asdī, who was related to Abū Bakr through his wife, Umm Rūman, ʿĀ’ishah’s mother. ʿĀmir ibn Fuhayrah was among the very early Muslims. For this, he suffered a great deal; he was one of the victims of the campaign of terror. Abū Bakr, however, bought him from his master and set him free. ʿĀmir continued to work for Abū Bakr as a shepherd. Later he was to play an important role in helping the Prophet and Abū Bakr to emigrate from Makkah to Madinah.3
The Prophet was very pleased with Abū Bakr’s action with those two slaves. He encouraged him to do what he could in order to help those victims of the campaign of torture. Abū Bakr responded, as he always did, without any hesitation. He chose the most helpless and those who showed a great determination to defy the prosecutors. Zunayrah was a slave who belonged to the Makhzūm clan. As such, it was left to Abū Jahl to torture her. He gave her so much of his venom that she lost her sight. Then he told her: “It is the two gods al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā who have done this to you.” She replied: “How can al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā know who worship them? This is simply the will of God and my Lord is able to give me back my sight.” When she woke up the following day, she had regained her sight. People of the Quraysh said: “This is part of Muhammad’s magic.” Abū Bakr moved swiftly to rescue this woman slave and set her free.4
A woman called al-Nahdiyah and her daughter were slaves belonging to a woman from the clan of ʿAbd al-Dār. Both became Muslims and their mistress ordered them to be tortured. One day she gave them a quantity of flour to bake, but as she set them to their task, she threatened them: “You will remain my slaves for ever. By God, I will never set you free.” Abū Bakr was nearby, and he heard the woman. He said to her: “Why don’t you release yourself from your oath?” She replied, “Release myself! It was you who spoiled them, so you set them free if you wish.” Abū Bakr asked her what price she wanted for them, and he paid her the price. Immediately, he declared that they were free and told the two women to give their former mistress her flour. They asked him whether he would mind if they finished it for her. He said that was up to them.5
Another woman slave, called Umm ʿUbays, belonged to al-Aswad ibn ʿAbd Yaghūth from the clan of Zuhrah. As Abū Bakr saw her one day being tortured by her master, he bought her and set her free. He did the same with a woman slave who belonged to the clan of ʿAdiy, in which ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb was the tormentor of Muslims as he was still an unbeliever then. ʿUmar used to beat up this woman as frequently and as painfully as he could. One day he stopped beating her, saying: “I apologize to you! I am only stopping beating you up because I am bored.” She said, “It is God who does this to you.” Then Abū Bakr bought her and set her free.6
All in all Abū Bakr freed seven slaves to save them from the campaign of terror launched by the Quraysh. His father, who was not a Muslim, could not understand his action. He said to him: “Son, I see that you are setting free weak slaves. If you want to do this, why don’t you set free some strong men slaves who will be able to protect you?” Abū Bakr explained that he wanted only to be rewarded by God for his action.7
Abū Bakr’s action was the best example of how closely knit the new Muslim community was. Those who were able to help their brothers and sisters did not hesitate to render any assistance they could. Nevertheless, Abū Bakr’s actions were exemplary. Neither he nor the other Muslims who enjoyed tribal lineage were able to stop the campaign of terror. Although he was reasonably wealthy, he could not buy all the victims of the Quraysh’s persecution. Not all of them were slaves anyway, and those who were could not have been bought because their masters refused to sell them. Abū Bakr’s action demonstrated the new bond that was established among the followers of the new religion. There was another aspect to what he did: it emphasized that the followers of the new religion were all equal, slaves and masters alike. Much later, when ʿUmar became one of the leading figures among the Muslims, he stated this fact in the clearest of terms when he said of Abū Bakr and what he did for Bilāl: “Abū Bakr is our master, and he has freed our master.”8
The Great Suffering
These efforts by Abū Bakr and other Muslims to help those of their brethren who were subjected to brutal torture by the young men who belonged to the most privileged families in the Quraysh could not significantly reduce the pressure on the Muslims. Indeed, the reverse was true. With every victim released by Abū Bakr a new turn of the screw was made in order to increase the pressure on those who were still captive. With every new recruit Islam gained, the venom of torture increased.
Khabbāb ibn al-Aratt was kidnapped from his clan’s area while he was still young. He was brought to Makkah, where he was sold to a man from the clan of the Khuzāʿah. He was one of the very early Muslims; therefore, he suffered more than most. The unbelievers experimented with all kinds of torture. They put him in a fire and beat him severely. They kicked him and punished him and flogged him, but he was as firm as a mountain. Once they tore off his clothes and laid him over stones heated with fire and twisted his neck all at the same time. They caused him permanent injuries to his back, but he was prepared to die for his faith. He survived the torture and lived to fight the unbelievers with the Prophet in all his wars.
Abū Fukayhah was a slave who belonged to Ṣafwān ibn Umayyah, the son of Bilāl’s former master. When Bilāl was freed by Abū Bakr, Abū Fukayhah had to bear all the brutality of the Jumaḥ master. He was dragged over the burning sand and tortured until he could hardly speak. A beetle passed close to him and Umayyah pointed to it and said to him: “This is your Lord, isn’t it?” He replied: “God is my Lord and your Lord and the Lord of this creature.” He was nearly strangled for saying that.
Umayyah’s brother, Ubay, encouraged him to increase the torture, saying: “Let Muhammad come and use his sorcery to release him.” They left him only when they thought that he was dead. It is said that Abū Bakr also bought him and set him free, but this is not absolutely confirmed since most reports suggest that the total number of slaves released by Abū Bakr was seven and seven have already been mentioned.
Those who suffered most as a result of the campaign of terror mounted by the Quraysh were a family composed of two elderly parents and their only son who was about 35. Yāsir, the father, was originally of a Yemeni tribe. He came to Makkah in his youth looking for his brother. He loved Makkah and felt a strong desire to stay. He, therefore, entered into an ‘alliance’ with his host, a notable personality of the clan of Makhzūm, to which Abū Jahl belonged. This type of alliance meant, as far as Yāsir was concerned, a firm attachment to the tribe of his ally which burdened him with all the duties of the weaker members of the tribe and accorded him tribal protection. Without such a bond, no individual could hope to survive in the Arabian society at that time.
Yāsir married Sumayyah, a servant of his ally, and she gave birth to their only son, ʿAmmār. Yāsir never regretted his decision to stay in Makkah. He led a happy life there, although he instinctively disliked idolatry. When the Prophet started to preach his new message, ʿAmmār was among the first to respond favourably. He joined the small number of Muslims who began to gather around the Prophet in the house of al-Arqam. ʿAmmār soon persuaded his parents to embrace Islam.
Their happy family life was soon disrupted by Abū Jahl, who gathered an effective force of youths and slaves to help him in his efforts of terrorization. He wanted to make Yāsir and his family an example for anyone who might be thinking of responding to the new message of Islam. He supervised a progressive type of torture of parents and son to make them renounce Islam. As the volume of torture increased, the three afflicted victims showed a growing determination to stick to their faith.
The Prophet passed by one day while they were being tortured. He could not do anything to release them. However, he gave them the most encouraging words when he said to them: “Yāsir and family, persevere. Heaven is our meeting-place.”
After weeks of varied types of torture, Sumayyah gave her tormentor a piece of her mind, telling him what she thought of him and his methods. Infuriated, Abū Jahl stabbed her in her private parts with a spear he was carrying. Then he turned to her husband, who was laid on the burning sand. He kicked him in his chest until he died. Thus Sumayyah and Yāsir were the first two martyrs in the history of Islam.
Pressure Too Strong to Bear
After the death of both of his parents, ʿAmmār was released, but only for a while. Time and again they would come to him with increased venom. After inflicting untold torture on him, they would say: “We will never release you until you abuse Muhammad and praise al-Lāt and al-ʿUzzā.” One day he was in such a state that he could bear the torture no longer. He did what he was told. They let him alone and went away. When he managed to pull himself together, he went to the Prophet with tears in his eyes. The Prophet asked him what was troubling him. He answered: “It is bad news, Messenger of God.” He told him what had happened. The Prophet asked him how he felt deep in his heart. ʿAmmār answered that his faith was as firm as ever. The Prophet said to him that if the unbelievers did the same to him again, he could tell them the words they wanted to hear, provided that deep in his heart he was absolutely certain of his faith.9
When the pressure increased so much and the torture became unbearable, some of those victims complained to the Prophet. Khabbāb reports:
We complained to God’s Messenger (peace be upon him) when he was reclining in the shade of the Kaʿbah saying, “Will you not pray God to help us?” He said, “Among believers who lived before you there were many who were placed in a hole dug in the ground and were sawn in halves, from head to foot; and there were some whose flesh was torn with combs of iron which also broke their bones. They did not turn away from their faith. By God, your Lord will certainly accomplish His purpose until an individual traveller can travel from Ṣanʿā’ to Haḍramout fearing no one but God and guarding against the wolf getting away with one of his sheep. You are only precipitating events.”10
What could the Prophet do for those companions of his who were weak, vulnerable and subjected to brutal torture. He himself was subjected to ridicule and physical abuse from the unbelievers who would throw dirt over his head as he prayed in the Ḥaram. They also threw impurities in front of his house. He had made it clear to his companions that they were not seeking any immediate gain. All that he promised them was a hard struggle for which God would reward them with heaven. It was enough for them that he had shown them the way and given them Divine guidance. Their life was transformed; they were given noble preoccupations to replace the low pleasures which were still sought after by the unbelievers. He could only reassure them as to the truthfulness of their message, and that their way was the right way. They were seeking God’s pleasure, and that was the only way to earn it.
The Prophet continued to make a determined stand, despite the Quraysh’s campaign of terror. He called on people to renounce the worship of idols and turn back to God, the Creator, who has honoured man and placed him in charge of the earth. Realizing that the persecution of a few helpless individuals was not deterring anyone from accepting the new faith, the Quraysh chiefs thought of making another attempt at negotiating a settlement.
Offer Too Absurd
A new delegation went to Abū Ṭālib, the Prophet’s uncle and protector. All those who had tried earlier to persuade Abū Ṭālib to stop his nephew went along this time, taking with them a few more notables and a young man called ʿImārah ibn al-Walīd, whose father was a well-known figure in Makkah. They made this proposal to Abū Ṭālib: “We have brought with us ʿImārah, the smartest and most vigorous young man in the Quraysh, to offer him to you as a son. He will benefit you, with his courage and sound mind. In exchange, you give us your nephew who has rebelled against the religion you and your forefathers have followed, and has sown the seeds of discord among your people and ridiculed their practices. We would take him and kill him while you would take a man for a man.
Abū Ṭālib replied: “What a raw deal you are offering me! You want to give me your son to feed while I give you my son to kill! This will never be.” Al-Muṭʿim ibn ʿAdiy, who was among the delegation, said to Abū Ṭālib: “Your people have offered you a fair deal indeed. They are doing their best to appease you, but you seem unwilling to accept any offer they make.”
Abū Ṭālib rejoined: “They certainly have not been fair to me. I see that you have joined them in letting me down.” The discussion became more heated before the Quraysh delegation left, with everyone feeling extremely angry.11
If the proposal the Quraysh put to Abū Ṭālib sounds preposterous today, the Quraysh delegation saw in it an honest attempt to achieve a solution to the satisfaction of all concerned. In the society of Arabia, where tribal ties transcended all other ties and where a man’s position was determined by the number of children he had and the support he could muster, Abū Ṭālib would not be sacrificing much if he exchanged his nephew for an able and intelligent young man. It is noteworthy that the proposal was described as fair by a man like al-Muṭʿim, who would show over the years a friendly and compassionate attitude towards the Prophet and the Muslims in general. Furthermore, he was a distant cousin of Abū Ṭālib. ʿAbd Manāf was the great-grandfather of both men; hence he was expected to look at the affair from a standpoint closer to that of Abū Ṭālib. Indeed, Abū Ṭālib’s remark about al-Muṭʿim’s letting him down acquires a stronger sense when it is considered in this light.
The negotiations thus ended in total failure. This was only to be expected since the issue touched on basic principles. So, the Quraysh felt it had no option but to widen its campaign of persecution to all Muslims. Each clan took vengeance against any of its sons who adopted Islam. Now even free and young noble men were at the receiving end of the Quraysh’s campaign. Maltreatment was much more widespread.
Maltreatment of the Honourable
Muṣʿab ibn ʿUmayr belonged to a rich family. His mother provided him with everything he wanted. He was perhaps the most handsome, elegant and smartest young man in Makkah. Yet when he became a Muslim, he was imprisoned by his people and his mother turned against him.
ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, who belonged to the Umayyad clan, was of a noble family. Nevertheless, his uncle al-Ḥakam ibn Abī al-ʿĀṣ tied him to a post and swore that he would never release him until he renounced Islam. ʿUthmān replied that he would never do that no matter what the pressure brought to bear on him was like. Saʿd ibn Abī Waqqāṣ, a very dutiful son, was pressurized by his mother, who thought that she would be able to use his love to turn him away from Islam. She made some threatening noises which availed her nothing. Finally, Saʿd told her point blank: “Mother, if you had one hundred souls and they came out one after the other, I would not turn away from Islam to spare you.”
Not even Abū Bakr was safe. One day he addressed the people, calling on them to believe in God and His Messenger. Some of them abused him. Soon there was some confusion and Abū Bakr was bound up by several people including ʿUtbah ibn Rabīʿah, who used his shoes to beat Abū Bakr’s face. When he was rescued by his own tribesmen, they thought that he was dead. Towards the evening, he came round. The first thing he did was to enquire how God’s Messenger was. He would not rest until he had been taken to the Prophet. They took him after nightfall, and he walked, supported by his mother and a Muslim woman, until he arrived at the Prophet’s home. The Prophet felt very sorry about what had happened to Abū Bakr. He spoke to his mother and she embraced Islam which made Abū Bakr rejoice.
Abū Ṭālib was keeping a close watch on developments in Makkah. He was increasingly worried about his nephew Muhammad (peace be upon him), and so he called upon his clan to give him their firm pledges of support in protecting Muhammad against any maltreatment to which he might be subjected. They responded favourably to his call, with only one exception – Abū Lahab. Although he was the Prophet’s own uncle, he continued his fierce opposition to Islam, joining the rest of the Quraysh in their campaign of persecution. Abū Ṭālib, however, was extremely pleased by this support. He expressed his feelings in a long, powerful poem in which he praised his clan and reminded the people of the Quraysh of their noble history. Thus, the Prophet was able to preach his message enjoying full protection.
NOTES
1. Ibn Hishām, al-Sīrah al-Nabawiyyah, Dār al-Qalam, Beirut, Vol. 1, p. 342. Also, Amīn Duwaydār, Ṣuwar Min Ḥayāt al-Rasūl, Dār al-Maʿārif, 4th edition, Cairo, p. 156.
2. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., pp. 339-340. Also, Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., p. 153.
3. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., p. 340. Also, Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., p. 154.
4. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., p. 340. Also, Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., p. 155.
5. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., p. 341. Also, Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., p. 155.
6. Amīn Duwaydār, op.cit., p. 155.
7. Ibid., p. 154.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid., p. 153.
10. Ibid., p. 156.
11. Ibn Hishām, op.cit., pp. 285-286.
