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Pyrotechny undoubtedly had its genesis in the East, and for that reason we will deal with its development there first. As he has intended to convey, the writer is strongly of opinion that the discovery of pyrotechnic compositions antedated that of gunpowder. In many cases earlier writers have discovered passages which they consider prove the use of firearms and gunpowder; in reality these refer to Greek-fire and similar compositions, which were used as projectiles, being thrown from machines or catapults, and not as propellants. Gunpowder as a mixture of ingredients may have been known from remote times, as undoubtedly were other simple pyrotechnic compositions, but all evidence goes to show that its use as a propellant was not known until well into the Christian Era.

The composition Greek-fire, known in ancient times as “naphtha,” was a mixture of pitch, resin, and sulphur, with the addition in some cases of crude saltpetre. It may be considered that in the absence of the latter ingredient the mixture does not constitute a pyrotechnic composition, but from the description of the use of “naphtha” in early writings, it appears at least likely that it was generally present.

The fire was either enclosed in hollow stones or iron vessels, and thrown from a catapult, or sometimes filled into the end of arrows and assisted to propel them forward or sustain their flight.

Philostratus (170–250 A.D.), writing of the Indian Campaign of Alexander the Great (B.C. 326), relates that the inhabitants of a town on the river Hyphasis (Beas) “defended themselves by means of lightning and thunder, which darted upon their besiegers.” This has been considered as evidence of the use of firearms, but is more probably the first reference to Greek-fire. Greek-fire or “naphtha” was used at the defence of Constantinople between 660 and 667.

At the siege of Pian-King Lo-Yang (1232), as mentioned in the Chinese Annals, iron pots were thrown containing a burning substance which could spread fire over half an acre, and described by the historians as the “thunder which shakes heaven.”

The Mongolians attacking Bagdad in the year 1258 made use of similar vessels, also fire arrows. Marco Polo, describing sieges of towns in China 1268 to 1273, mentions the throwing of fire.

In most of the early records although noise is remarked upon, it is apparently while the projectile is in the air or upon impact; this disposes of the impression which many writers have formed that firearms are referred to, there being no reference to an initial explosion.

Sir George Stanton, writing in 1798 of his embassy to the Emperor of China, says that “nitre (saltpetre) is the daily produce of China and India, and there accordingly the knowledge of gunpowder seems coeval with that of the most distant historic events. Among the Chinese it has been applied at all times to useful purposes ... and to amusement in making a vast variety of fireworks—but its force had not been directed through strong metallic tubes, as it was by Europeans soon after they had discovered that composition.”

Although the place of origin of the art, pyrotechny has not developed in the East as rapidly as in Europe, except in Japan.

Japanese pyrotechnists, with that wonderful capacity for careful and exact manual work which is so characteristic of the race, have developed aerial fireworks, that is to say, the shell, to a remarkable degree of perfection. The compositions used are not to be compared with European manufactures in point of colour or brilliance, but the effects obtained are extraordinary. The stars, upon the bursting of the shell, are thrown out in symmetrical patterns and designs, several examples of which are given in the accompanying Japanese colour prints.

Daylight fireworks also originated in Japan. Instead of pyrotechnic effects, the shell contains a grotesque balloon in the form of an animal, human figure, or other form, which, being open and weighted at the lower end, becomes inflated as it falls and remains in the air for a considerable period. Other daylight effects are coloured clouds formed by coloured powder, distributed by the bursting of the shell, showers of streamers, confetti, and toys.

Chinese firework displays have often been enthusiastically described by travellers in China. Whether it is that the glamour of the East distorts the perceptions, or that these travellers have not seen a European firework display, there is no doubt that such descriptions are, to say the least, over coloured.

Chinese fire (a composition of saltpetre, iron filings, sulphur and charcoal), a few simple colour compositions, and a large number of Chinese crackers of varying sizes constitute a Chinese display; the rest of the exhibition being eked out with lanterns, pictures, etc., which certainly do not come under the heading of pyrotechnics.

The writer once had an opportunity of witnessing a Chinese display of some importance, lasting several hours, which produced the effect on the mind of watching some performance or game of the rules of which one was in entire ignorance. Pyrotechnically, only the crudest effects were produced, the remainder of the display, consisting of such items as a man slowly climbing a ladder carrying a lantern, was to the uninitiated mystifying.

The following is an account by a traveller in the early nineteenth century of a Chinese display: “The fireworks, in some particulars,” says he, “exceeded anything of the kind I had ever seen. In grandeur, magnificence, and variety they were, I own, inferior to the Chinese fireworks we had seen at Batavia, but infinitely superior in point of novelty, neatness and ingenuity of contrivance. One piece of machinery I greatly admired: a green chest, five feet square, was hoisted up by a pulley fifty or sixty feet from the ground, the bottom of which was so contrived as then suddenly to fall out, and make way for twenty or thirty strings of lanterns, enclosed in a box, to descend from it, unfolding themselves from one another by degrees, so as at last to form a collection of full five hundred, each having a light of a beautifully coloured flame burning brightly within it. This devolution and development of lanterns was several times repeated, and at every time exhibiting a difference of colour and figure. On each side was a correspondence of smaller boxes, which opened in like manner as the other, and let down an immense network of fire, with divisions and compartments of various forms and dimensions, round and square, hexagons, octagons, etc., which shone like the brightest burnished copper, and flashed like prismatic lightnings, with every impulse of the wind. The whole concluded with a volcano, or general explosion and discharge of suns and stars, squibs, crackers, rockets and grenades, which involved the gardens for an hour in a cloud of intolerable smoke. The diversity of colour, with which the Chinese have the secret of clothing their fire, seems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny.”

It will be seen that lanterns play an important part in the exhibition, and that when the fireworks proper are reached, the result is an “intolerable smoke.”

Indian pyrotechnists are more advanced than their Chinese neighbours. Firework displays carried out by them are nowadays more or less crude attempts to reproduce European work.

The writer has seen a set piece evidently intended to follow a fire picture seen in a European display carried out by small wicks burning in oil instead of the “lances,” as the small fireworks used to outline the pictures are called in this country.

In India as in China fireworks play a frequent part in religious and civil ceremonies. In the former country, at certain festivals, a primitive device for producing a series of reports is used. These are called “adirvedis,” and consist of a series of short iron tubes fitted to a wooden plank, charged with gunpowder and tamped with clay.

At weddings, crackers are largely used under a variety of names, such as Vengagvedi, Gola, Pataka or Koroo. To-day these are simple crackers filled with country-made gunpowder or the imported Chinese crackers. Formerly almost the only composition used was chlorate of potash and one of the sulphides of arsenic. A favourite form consisted of a small quantity of the two ingredients put together unmixed into a piece of rag with some small stones or grit and tied. The resulting fireworks were similar to the “throw-down” crackers sold in this country.

Owing to the very large number of accidents caused by the casual methods, both in manufacture and use, with this highly sensitive composition, H.M. Chief Inspector of Explosives for India endeavoured, in 1902, to secure its prohibition, as was done in this country in 1895, but it was not until 1910, when it had been established that this composition was being used by anarchists, that it was finally prohibited.

The most successful effect produced by Hindoo pyrotechnists is the “Tubri.” The composition is here known as Chinese fire, a mixture of charcoal, saltpetre, sulphur and iron dust, charged into either bamboo tubes or earthen pots.

It is a common practice to fix a pot at either end of a long bamboo, which is whirled quickly about by a performer; the result produced is quite good, but seems rather to come under the heading of juggling than that of pyrotechnics proper. As the pots are theoretically the wrong shape for such a purpose, that is to say, a large mass of composition is burning through a narrow orifice, premature explosions are frequent. This want of theoretical knowledge is noticeable throughout, but such incidents seem to be appreciated as part of the show.

Another use of the earth pot is the “burusu,” a kind of red flare; the composition used being sulphur, saltpetre, and nitrate of strontia. Flare compositions are also used loose as in England, and are known as “chandrajota” or “mahteb.”

Abusavanani or Hawai, that is to say, rockets, are now made similarly to those manufactured in Europe except a bamboo case is most generally used, but formerly chlorate of potash and orpiment seem to have been employed for this purpose.

The firework shell under the name “out” is also manufactured very much as in this country, except that the range of effects is very limited, simple coloured stars being almost the only “garniture” used.

In Siam it is a custom, and one apparently of considerable antiquity, to celebrate certain religious festivals with firework displays. These displays take place in the day-time, and take the form of discharges of rockets, some of which are of very large size; a writer giving their length, exclusive of the stick, as from 8 ft. to 10 ft. The case is composed of a section of bamboo bound with string. The composition consists of coarse native powder, of which from 20 lbs. to 30 lbs. is often used in one case. The rocket stick, which is of bamboo, varying from 20 ft. to 40 ft. in length, is gaily decorated with coloured paper and tinsel and fitted with bamboo whistles. A rough scaffold is erected from which to fire the rockets, and according to those who have witnessed such exhibitions, considerable altitudes are reached by the rockets in flight. As may be expected with such crude methods, mishaps are of frequent occurrence.