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Pyrotechnic compositions and gunpowder are inextricably mixed together in early European records; for our inquiries it will serve no useful purpose to disentangle them, the latter being only a particular case of the former. We will therefore deal with them together, taking the evidence of the knowledge of one as that of both, as until gunpowder is specifically mentioned as being used as a propellant in a gun or similar weapon, there is nothing to distinguish it from any other pyrotechnic composition.

The earliest record of European pyrotechny is in Claudius’ account of the public festivities during the consulate of Theodosius in the fourth century A.D., in which he describes fire “which ran about in different directions over the planks without burning or even charring them, and which formed by their twisting and turning globes of fire.”

Leo VI, Emperor of the East, in a work written about A.D. 900, says: “We have divers ways of destroying the enemies’ ships, as by means of fire prepared in tubes, from which they issue with a sound of thunder, and with a fiery smoke that burns the vessels on which they are hurled. A tube of tin must be put on the front of the ship to hurl this from.”

The most interesting reference of an early date is supposed to have been written by Marcus Graecus in his “Liber ignium ad comburendos hostes” (Book of fires for burning up the enemy), in which he not only gives the exact proportions of the compositions, but describes what is virtually the modern cracker, and also a primitive form of rocket. The case of the former was only partially filled, as with the jumping cracker of to-day, and although the wording is not very explicit, it was apparently bent in a similar way.

The date of this work is a subject of controversy; some writers place it as early as the eighth century, and it can only be said with certainty that it is not later than 1280. The latter date is fixed by the death of Albertus Magnus, who, in his book “De miribilibus mundi,” from internal evidence, is obviously plagiarising the Liber Ignium.

Friar Roger Bacon (1214–94), in two of his works, refers at least twice to compositions containing saltpetre, powdered charcoal, and sulphur. In one place he refers to fires that “shall burn at what distance we please”; in another to “thunder and corruscations,” which references seem to suggest that he is describing something of a pyrotechnic nature rather than the simple effect of gunpowder. His description in no way indicates that he claimed to be the inventor, but rather as something well known before.

Dr. Jebb, in his preface to Bacon’s “Opus Majus,” refers to what seems to be an early example of both the rocket and the cracker.

Dutens, in his “Inquiries into the Origin of the discoveries attributed to the Moderns” (1790), makes reference to many early writers, which are mostly so vague and exaggerated that no definite conclusion can be drawn from them; most refer to the early uses of Greek-fire or similar composition.

Don Pedro, Bishop of Leon, says that “in 1343, in a sea combat between the King of Tunis and the Moorish King of Seville ... those of Tunis had certain iron tubes or barrels wherewith they threw thunderbolts of fire.”

This description, if accurate, may be thought to suggest the use of cannons, but it is more likely to refer to the use of Greek-fire; this composition will, in certain proportions, if charged into a strong tube, give intermittent bursts, projecting blazing masses of the mixture to a considerable distance. The writer has seen this effect produced in a steel mortar of 5½ inches diameter, the masses of composition being thrown a distance of upwards of a hundred yards, a considerable range in the days of close warfare. Anyone who has seen this phenomenon will at once realise that here probably is the true solution of many obscure early references to explain which so much ingenuity has been expended.

An interesting fact which seems to have escaped the notice of writers on this subject is that Theresa, daughter of Alfonso V. King of Leon and the Asturias (A.D. 999), when married to Abdallah, King of Toledo, took for device on her coat of arms a mortar in which a powder is being pounded. This powder is supposed to represent gunpowder, a supposition which is supported by the motto, “Minima maxima fecit” (A little makes much). If gunpowder is intended, this must be one of the earliest references to its quality of exploding, and it is difficult to explain the meaning otherwise.

Richard Cœur de Lion used Greek-fire on his galley at the siege of Acre in 1191, and it is thought by many that it was introduced into Western Europe by the Crusaders, who had learned its use in the East.

Alfonso Duke of Ferrara had as his coat of arms a bomb-shell in flight, and Antoine de Lalaing, Count of Hooghstraeten, had a bomb-shell exploding in water. The adoption of these two devices at about the same time (1540) seems to indicate that this projectile was coming into use, that is to say, for military purposes at least.

An early reference to shell appears in Stowe’s Chronicles (1565). He mentions two foreigners, Peter Brand and Peter Van Cullen, a gunsmith, in the employ of Henry VIII (A.D. 1546), who “caused to be made certain mortar pieces being at the mouth eleven inches unto nineteen inches wide, for the use whereof to be made certain hollow shot of cast-iron, to be stuffed with firework or wild-fire, whereof the bigger sort for the same had screws of iron to receive a match to carry fire kindled, that the firework might be set on fire for to break in pieces the same hollow shot, whereof the smallest piece hitting any man would kill or spoil him.” The missile is to all intents the firework shell of the present day, except that the modern shell has a papier-maché case.

The reference to “firework” without further explanation seems to indicate that by this time the word was well established in use. Shakespeare makes three references to fireworks. In “Love’s Labour’s Lost,” Act V, Scene 1, Don Armado says: “The King would have me present the Princess with some delightful entertainment, or show, or pageant, or antic, or firework.” In “Henry VIII,” Act I, Scene 3, we read of “fights and fireworks”; and again in “King John,” Act II, Scene 1: “What cracker is this same that deafs our ears?”

However, nothing in the nature of a firework display appears to have taken place, at least in this country, before the time of Elizabeth.

The use of fire for theatrical purposes, as in Mystery Plays to represent the “gate of Hell,” has been taken by some to refer to fireworks, but this seems doubtful as flames are mentioned, and it is more probable that a torch or similar contrivance was used.

When, however, we read a description of a barge at the coronation of Anne Boleyn, in 1538, carrying a dragon “casting forth wild fire—and men casting fire,” the reference to some pyrotechnic effect, however primitive, seems fairly obvious.

The men performers may be considered as early types of the “green man” who made his appearance somewhat later. The office of this performer was to head processions carrying “fire clubs” and scattering “fireworks” (probably sparks) to clear the way.

One account of a procession to the Chester Races on St. George’s Day, 1610, commences as follows: “Two men in green ivy, set with work upon their other habit, with black hair and black beards, very ugly to behold, and garlands upon their heads, with great clubs in their hands, with fireworks to scatter abroad to maintain the way for the rest of the show.”

The fire clubs referred to are described in John Bate’s book, published in 1635; the same writer illustrates a “green man” on the title page of his work.

Facsimile Title-page of Bate’s Book, showing a “Green Man.”

Regarding the origin of the Green Man, it has been suggested that the character was evolved from the wild men, satyrs, monsters, etc., which appeared in the earlier exhibitions. This may or may not be so, but another explanation suggested to the writer by an old Danish print of the sixteenth century is at least plausible.

This print, which apparently represents a floating firework device of the old scenic type, shows two figures carrying fire clubs wearing leaves, and suggesting immediately the green man of a slightly later date.

Behind them are two figures holding rockets, leaving no doubt that a firework display is portrayed.

On the other hand, apart from the fact that normally they have no fire issuing from their clubs, the supporters of the Danish royal arms might be here depicted; a supposition which is borne out by the fact that the figure surmounting the erection carries the crown and sceptre of Denmark.

It seems quite within the bounds of possibility that these two figures were introduced into Danish displays as a compliment to Royalty, and that later they appeared in England, and became, as it were, acclimatised. Colour is lent to this belief by the record of a display given on a float by the King of Denmark in 1606 upon his departure from this country, where he had been on a visit to his brother-in-law, James I.

This exhibition seems to have given James a taste for fireworks, and one at least of the Danish artists appears to have remained in this country, as some months after James had a display carried out by “a Dane, two Dutchmen, and Sir Thomas Challoner.”

In 1572 a firework display was given in the Temple Fields, Warwick, by the Earl of Warwick, then Master-General of the Ordnance. The occasion was a visit to the castle by Queen Elizabeth, who appears to have been rather partial to such exhibitions.

The display consisted of a mimic battle, with two canvas forts for a setting; noise was provided by the discharge of ordnance of various sizes; the fireworks proper seem to have taken the form of flights of rockets. The display was evidently conducted in a somewhat reckless manner, some houses being set on fire, and some completely destroyed, the two inhabitants of which are said in a contemporary report to have been in bed and asleep, although how that could be with continuous discharge from twenty pieces of ordnance, to say nothing of “qualivers and harquebuses,” in the immediate neighbourhood, is to say the least curious.

Two other displays attended by Elizabeth were those at Kenilworth in 1572 and at Elvetham in 1591.

A Display of the Earliest Type. From a contemporary print (c. 1650).

The first European people to make headway in the art of pyrotechny proper appear to have been the Italians. Vanochio, an Italian, in a work on artillery, dated 1572, attributes to the Florentines and Viennese the honour of being the first who made fireworks on erections of wood, decorated with statues and pictures raised to a great height, some in Florence being forty ells, or seventy-two feet high. He adds that these were illuminated so that they might be seen from a distance, and that the statues threw out fire from the mouths and eyes.

He refers to the practice, which survived up to the end of the eighteenth century, of constructing elaborate temples or palaces richly decorated, with transparencies illuminated from inside, statuary, gilding, floral and other decorations. On these erections the fireworks proper were displayed, and which were then called artificial fireworks. Nothing very large in the way of firework set-pieces seems to have been attempted, but effect was gained by repetition of a small device over the facade of the building.

Displays were given annually in Florence at the Feast of St. John and the Assumption. This custom extended to Rome, where the festivals were given on the Feast of St. Peter and St. Paul, and at the rejoicings on the election of a Pope.

The towers and fortifications of the castle of St. Angelo furnished suitable spots for these, being visible from the greater part of the city of Rome, and what are described as braziers, firepots, and other fires would be placed there, so as to give a great display without the expense of a building.

Evelyn, the famous diarist, gives an account of one such display which he witnessed in 1664.

In other towns that wished to imitate the festival of Rome, it was arranged to place illuminations on the highest towers and steeples of the towns, but as it was found that there was considerable danger of fire from these, it was afterwards preferred to make suitable erections in the great public squares, which were convenient for the exhibition itself and also for the sightseers.

The Italians appear to have held the supremacy until the end of the seventeenth century.

In the book of Artillery by Diego Ufano, written in 1610, we read that only very simple fireworks were made in his time in Spain and Flanders, consisting of wooden framework supporting pots of fire wrapped round with cloth dipped in pitch, but that more than fifty years before magnificent spectacles could be seen in Italy.

In 1615, on the occasion of the marriage of Louis XIII, a display was given at Paris in the Place Royale, in which were included combats between men carrying illuminated arms.

In 1606 the Duc de Sully gave a spectacle which depicted a battle between savages and monsters, the former throwing darts and fire. A similar display had previously been given on the occasion of the entry of Henry II into Rheims, and it was repeated in 1612.

These spectacles, which are quoted as firework displays, cannot rightly be considered as such, fireworks playing a comparatively secondary part in the exhibitions.

A display of this nature to celebrate the capture of Rochelle was conducted by Clariner of Nuremberg, a celebrated pyrotechnist of the day.

During the reign of Louis XIV, 1638–1715, great advances were made in pyrotechny in France; great displays were given on the return of the King and Queen to Paris in 1660, on five consecutive days at Versailles in 1676, also on the occasion of the birth of the Dauphin in 1682, in Paris at the Louvre, Dijon, and Lyons.

A particularly fine display in celebration of the Peace of Riswick, 1669 (for which event displays took place in several countries), is mentioned by Frézier, who wrote a treatise on pyrotechny (1747); it was, he says, witnessing this display that inspired him to study the art.

Set Piece of the Scenic Type.

One of the chief causes of progress in France was the encouragement given by Louis XV (1710–1774) to the pyrotechnists Morel Torré and the Ruggieri brothers, the latter being Italians from Bologna who became naturalised Frenchmen, and contributed very greatly to the development of French pyrotechny. They were the first to rely chiefly on fireworks for the effect, instead of using them merely to embellish a scenic or architectural structure.

Louis XV expended large sums of money on displays, one of the finest being that fired at Versailles in 1739 by Ruggieri, on the occasion of the marriage of Madame La Première of France with Don Philippe of Spain. Writing of this display in 1821, Ruggieri’s son says: “There appeared for the first time the Salamander la Rosace and le Guilloche, which are still admired to-day.” These are purely pyrotechnic pieces and devices; similar or identical ones are used at the present day, which seems to indicate that fireworks proper were making headway against scenic effect.

Other displays in France during the eighteenth century were those on the occasions of the birth of the Duke of Brittany, 1704; birth of the Dauphin, 1730; the convalescence of the King, 1744; and the return of the King to Paris, 1745. Also there is in existence a series of prints which, but for the fact that they are described as fireworks, would be taken to be scenic tableaux; whether the figures are human beings or wax-works is not indicated. These were erected in celebration of the following events:—The taking of Tournay, the taking of Chateau Grand, Victory over the Allies, all dated 1745; the taking of Ypres, 1747, all of which took place in Paris before the Hotel de Ville. Similar displays were given in Lyons in 1765 to celebrate the taking of Fort San Philippe, and at Soleure in 1777, in honour of the Swiss Guard.

Displays took place at Versailles (1751) on the occasion of the birth of the Duke of Burgundy. In 1758–9 came a further series of victory celebrations in honour of the victory of Lutzelberg, over the English in America, and over the Allies at Bergheri, all of which appear to have been of the “tableau” type mentioned above.

There were also displays for the peace celebrations on the Seine, 1763, the birth of the Dauphin, 1782, in the Place de Geneve, and peace rejoicings, 1783, before the Hotel de Ville.

Ruggieri, however, states in his book that the display fired on the marriage of Louis XVI (or, as he then was, the Dauphin) was the only display since the great fetes of 1739 which showed any considerable advance in the art; he may, however, be in some degree biased as his father was concerned in each of these displays.

Firework Display at Nuremberg, 1650. From a contemporary engraving